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COMPLETE  FARMER 


RURAL-  ECONOMIST; 


CONTAINING 


A  COMPENDIOUS  EPITOME  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  BRANCHES 
OF  AGRICULTURE  AND  RURAL  ECONOMY. 


BY   THOMAS    G.    FESSENDEN, 

EDITOR   OF   THE   NEW   ENGLAND    FARMER. 


Agriculture  is  the  art  of  arts  :  without  it,  man  must  be  a  savage,  and  the  world  a 
wilderness. 


SECOND    EDITION. 
REVISED.  IMPROVED,  AND  ENLARGED. 


BOSTON: 
RUSSELL,   ODIORNE    &    CO. 

GEORGE   C.    BARRETT,    BOSTON  ;    GEORGE    C.    THORBORN,  AND    B.  AND  S. 
COLLINS,  NEW  YORK  ;    DESELVER,  THOMAS,  AND  CO.,  f  HILADELPHIA  ; 
REYNOLDS  AND    BATEHAM,  ROCHESTER,  N.  Y. 
AND  THE  PRINCIPAL  BOOKSELLERS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

1835. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1834, 

By  Thomas  G.  Fessenden, 

m  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


BOSTON: 

STEREOTYPKD   BY   SHEPARD,    OLIVER   AND    CO. 

No.  3,  Water  Slreet. 


BOSTON: 

Printed  by  Lewis  and  Penniman, 

Bromfiell  Street. 


PREFACE. 


In  the  following  pages,  the  object  of  the  writer  is  to  give 
brief,  but  it  is  hoped  perspicuous  and  practical  sketches  of 
some  important  improvements  in  modern  husbandry.  In 
attempting  to  carry  this  design  into  effect,  it  has  been  his 
intention  to  insert  no  matter  which  is  merely  conjectural  or 
speculative  ;  to  give  place  to  nothing  not  worth  the  atten- 
tion of  the  person  whose  livelihood  depends  on  his  pursuits 
as  a  cultivator ;  and  who  has  neither  time  nor  money  to  de- 
vote to  such  books  as  are  expensive,  voluminous,  and  foreign 
or  remotely  related  to  available  improvements  in  husbandry. 

With  this  view,  the  author  has  collected  and  generally 
abridged  from  the  sources  which  his  occupation  as  editor  of 
the  New  England  Farmer  has  made  it  his  duty  as  well  as 
his  pleasure  to  explore,  the  materials  of  the  little  work  now 
submitted.  He  does  not  pretend  to  have  taken  a  wide  sur- 
vey of  the  field  of  husbandry,  much  less,  in  this  tract,  to  have 
given  a  plan  of  the  whole  premises.  But  he  hopes  his  ob- 
servations, though  limited,  may  prove  serviceable  so  far  as 
they  extend.  Agriculture  is  the  most  extensive  as  well  as 
the  most  useful  of  the  sciences,  and  as  an  art  may  be  com- 
pared to  the  ocean,  in  which  every  stream  of  improvement 
in  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of  mankind  pours  its 
contribution.  Still  it  is  not  necessary  to  circumnavigate  the 
whole  of  this  world  of  waters  in  order  to  make  voyages  of 
valuable  discovery.  We  cannot  dip  an  oar  nor  launch  a 
skiff  in  or  upon  the  bosom  of  this  great  deep,  without  find- 
ing something  to  reward  our  adventures. 


4  PREFACE. 

Agriculture,  although  the  most  ancient  of  the  arts,  not 
only  coeval  with,  but  in  truth  the  sun  from  which  emanated 
the  da\A  a  of  civilization,  is,  nevertheless,  the  art  in  which 
the  beneficial  effects  of  modern  improvement  are  most  strik- 
ingly exemplified.  Let  us  contrast  its  former  with  its  pre- 
sent condition  in  Great  Britain. 

According  to  English  laws  in  force  from  the  fifth  to  the 
eleventh  century,  '  all  the  cattle  of  a  village,  though  belong- 
ing to  different  owners,  were  pastured  together  in  one  herd, 
under  the  direction  of  one  person,  (with  proper  assistants,) 
whose  oath  in  all  disputes  about  the  cattle  was  decisive. 
Their  ploughs  seem  to  have  been  very  slight  and  inartificial  ; 
for  it  was  enacted  that  no  man  should  undertake  to  guide  a 
plough  who  could  not  make  one  ;  and  that  the  driver  should 
make  the  ropes  with  which  it  was  drawn  of  twisted  willows. 
But  slight  as  these  ploughs  were,  it  was  usual  for  six  or  eight 
persons  to  form  themselves  into  a  society  for  fitting  out  one 
of  them,  and  providing  it  with  oxen,  and  every  thing  neces- 
sary for  ploughing  ;  and  many  minute  and  curious  laws  were 
made  for  the  regulation  of  such  societies.  This  is  a  suffi- 
cient proof  both  of  the  poverty  of  the  husbandman  and  the 
imperfect  state  of  agriculture  among  the  ancient  Britons  of 
this  period.'^ 

'  By  the  laws  of  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  who 
flourished  in  the  end  of  the  seventh  and  beginning  of  the 
eighth  century,  a  farm  consisting  of  ten  hides  or  ploughlands 
was  to  pay  the  following  rent,  viz.  :  ten  casks  of  honey, 
three  hundred  loaves  of  bread,  twelve  casks  of  strong  ale, 
two  oxen,  ten  wethers,  ten  geese,  twenty  hens,  ten  cheeses, 
one  cask  of  butter,  five  salmon,  twenty  pounds  of  forage, 
and  one  hundred  eels.'t  Such  has  been  the  state  of  tillage 
in  that  country  which  is  now  eulogized  as  the  garden  of 
Europe  ! 

Improvements  in  breeds  of  domestic  animals  by  judicious 
crosses,  and  propagating  from  the  best  specimens  of  their 
species,  as  well  as  plentiful  and  suitable  feeding,  have  ad- 
vanced the  state  of  agriculture  more  than  the  most  sanguine 
advocate  for  scientific  husbandry  could  have  anticipated. 
To  say  nothing  of  the  wonders  effected  by  Bakewell  and 
other  eminent  improvers  in  that  department  of  husbandry, 
we  will  glance  at  the  comparative  states  of  the  London  cattle 
market  at  a  distant  and  a  less  remote  period.     An  English 

*  Loudon's  Encyc.  Agr.  p.  36.        f  Wilkin's  Leges  Saxon,  p.  25. 


PREFACE.  6 

writer  states  that  *  about  the  year  1700,  the  average  weight 
of  oxen  killed  for  the  London  market  was  three  hundred  and 
seventy  pounds  ;  of  calves,  fifty  pounds  ;  of  sheep,  twenty- 
eight  pounds  ;  and  of  lambs,  eighteen  pounds.  The  average 
weight  at  present  (about  the  close  of  the  century)  is,  of 
oxen,  eight  hundred  pounds ;  calves,  one  hundred  and  forty 
pounds;  sheep,  eighty  pounds  ;  and  lambs,  fifty  pounds.'  It 
would  be  a  curious  item  in  our  agricultural  knowledge,  if 
information  similar  to  what  we  have  quoted  relative  to 
Boston  and  other  American  markets  were  correctly  ascer- 
tained, faithfully  recorded,  and  from  time  to  time  laid  before 
the  public.  We  should  advance  with  more  celerity  and  ala- 
crity along  the  highway  of  improvement,  if  we  had  means 
of  marking  and  giving  comparative  views  of  the  progress 
which  we  have  made  and  are  making. 

Some  idea  of  the  present  state  of  agriculture  in  England 
maybe  gathered  from  the  following  extract  from  the  journal 
of  a  traveller :  '  Every  spot  of  ground  capable  of  being  cul- 
tivated is  improved.  Wherever  I  have  been  the  fields  are 
generally  small,  inclosed  by  hedges,  and  made  perfectly 
smooth  by  means  of  cast  iron  rollers.  Numerous  trees  are 
left  to  grow  around  the  hedges,  and  scattered  over  the  fields. 
These  are  so  nicely  trimmed  as  to  add  greatly  to  the  beauty 
of  the  country.  Not  a  weed  is  suffered  to  grow.  The 
crops  all  look  well,  and  are  much  more  productive  than  ours. 
The  cattle  and  sheep  feed  on  grass  up  to  their  knees,  and 
look,  as  we  should  say,  fit  to  kill.  The  slight  inclosures  that 
keep  them  in  their  pastures  would  be  but  a  poor  protection 
against  our  lean,  half-fed,  unruly  animals.  Here  the  cattle 
have  no  need  to  break  fences.  They  have  food  sufficient 
within  their  own  domains.  I  came  here  under  the  impres- 
sion that  this  country  was  bare  of  trees.  On  the  contrary,  I 
find  il^  better  stocked  in  this  respect  than  the  thick  settle- 
ments of  our  own  country.  We  wantonly  destroy  trees  as 
if  they  were  of  no  value  :  here  they  are  planted  and  nursed 
with  as  much  care  as  if  they  bore  choice  fruit.' 

Although  we  think  the  writer  last  quoted  has  somewhat 
exaggerated  the  defects  of  American  husbandry,  we  must 
allow  that  his  strictures  are  not  so  destitute  of  some  founda- 
tion in  reality  as  could  be  wished.  We,  however,  have  of 
late  improved  and  are  improving  in  every  branch  of  culture, 
and  bid  fair  soon  to  possess  a  system  of  agriculture  as  well 
adapted  to  our  climate  and  circumstances  as  Great  Britain, 
or  even  Flanders  can  boast  of  at  present.     Our  fields  may 


b  PREFACE. 

have  a  less  imposing  appearance,  and  our  products  may  be 
less  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  land  we  have  under  cul- 
tivation, and  still  our  tillage  be  on  the  whole  judicious.  The 
agricultural  implements  and  farming  operations  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  are  in  most  particulars  very  similar  to  those  of 
Great  Britain.  Circumstances  and  climate,  however,  require 
variations,  which  the  sagacity  of  the  American  cultivator 
will  lead  him  to  adopt,  often  in  contradiction  to  the  opinions 
of  those  who  understand  the  science  better  than  the  practice 
of  husbandry.  In  Europe  land  is  dear  and  labor  cheap ;  but 
in  the  United  States  the  reverse  is  the  case.  The  Europe- 
an cultivator  is  led  by  a  regard  to  his  own  interest  to  endea- 
vor to  make  the  most  of  his  la^id ;  the  American  has  the 
same  inducement  to  make  the  most  of  his  labor.  Perhaps, 
however,  this  principle,  in  this  country,  is  generally  carried 
to  an  unprofitable  extreme,  and  our  farmers  would  derive 
more  benefit  from  their  labor  as  well  as  their  land  if  they 
selected  such  parts  of  their  possessions  as  they  can  afford  to 
till  thoroughly,  and  to  manure  abundantly.  A  man  may 
possess  a  large  estate  in  lands,  without  being  called  on  by 
good  husbandry  to  hack  and  scratch  over  the  whole  as  evi- 
dence of  his  title.  He  may  cultivate  well  those  parts  which 
are  naturally  most  fertile,  and  suffer  the  rest  to  remain  wood- 
land, or  having  cleared  a  part,  lay  it  down  to  permanent 
pasture ;  which  will  yield  him  an  annual  profit,  without  re- 
quiring much  labor. 

The  climate  and  soil  of  the  United  States  are  well  adapted 
to  the  cultivation  of  Indian  corn,  a  very  valuable  vegetable, 
which  cannot  be  grown  to  advantage  in  Great  Britain.  This 
entirely  and  very  advantageously  supersedes  the  field  culture 
of  the  horse  bean,  {vicia  fuba)  one  of  the  most  common  fal- 
low crops  in  that  island.  Koot-husbandry ^  or  the  raising  of 
roots  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  cattle,  is,  however,  of  less 
importance  in  the  United  States  than  in  Great  Britain.  The 
winters  are  so  severe  that  turnips  can  rarely  be  eaten  by 
stock  on  the  ground  where  they  grow,  and  all  sorts  of  roots 
are  with  more  difficulty  preserved  and  dealt  out  to  stock  in 
this  country  than  in  those  which  possess  a  more  mild  and 
equable  climate.  Hay  is  more  easily  made  in  the  United 
States  than  in  Great  Britain,  owing  to  the  season  for  hay- 
making being  more  dry,  and  the  sun  more  powerful  in  the 
former  than  in  the  latter  country.  There  are  many  other 
circumstances  which  favor  the  American  farmer,  and  render 
his  situation  more  eligible  than  that  of  those  who  pursue  the 


PREFACE.  7 

same  occupation  in  most  parts  of  Europe.  He  is  generally 
the  owner,  as  well  as  the  occupier,  of  the  soil  which  he  culti- 
vates ;  is  not  burdened  with  tithes ;  his  taxes  are  light,  and 
the  product  of  his  labors  will  command  more  of  the  necessa- 
ries, comforts,  and  innocent  luxuries  of  life,  than  similar 
efforts  would  procure  in  any  other  part  of  the  globe. 

Not  only  have  the  inducements  to  agricultural  improve- 
ments in  the  United  States  been  powerful,  but  of  late  a 
corresponding  effect  has  been  the  result.  We  cannot  better 
make  this  evident  than  by  a  quotation  from  '  Remarks  of  the 
Rev.  M.  Allen,  of  Pembroke,  county  of  Plymouth,  state  of 
Massachusetts,  in  the  Legislature  of  that  state,  on  a  proposition 
to  renew  an  Act  for  the  Encouragement  of  Agriculture  and 
Manufactures,'  published  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol. 
xii.  p.  298. 

'  It  has  already  been  suggested  that  the  soil  of  the  county 
from  which  I  came  is  not  the  most  favorable  for  agricultural 
pursuits.  The  expense  of  cultivation  there  is  thought  by 
some  to  exceed  the  amount  to  be  derived  from  it.  This  was 
the  prevalent  opinion  before  the  introduction  of  modern  im- 
provements. The  operations  of  an  Agricultural  Society 
have  proved  that  labor  and  skill  can  make  even  despised 
soils  productive.  I  suppose  that  ten  bushels  of  rye  to  the 
acre,  twenty  of  Indian  corn,  one  ton  of  English  hay,  and 
two  hundred  bushels  of  potatoes,  were  formerly  considered 
as  average  crops.  Since  premiums  have  been  offered,  we 
have  claims  for  from  forty  to  fifty  bushels  of  rye,  from  one 
hundred  and  fifteen  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-two  of  Indian 
corn,  from  three  to  four  tons  of  English  hay,  and  from  four 
to  five  hundred  bushels  of  potatoes.  Our  improvements 
have  not  been  confined  to  single  acres ;  in  several  instances 
the  products  of  entire  farms  have  been  more  than  quad- 
rupled.' 

The  advances  of  agriculture  of  late  years  have  not  been 
uniform,  but  accelerated;  its  progress  has  been  in  what  mathe- 
maticians would  call  a  geometrical  ratio.  Every  step  has 
furnished  means  for  quickening  the  pace  and  extending  the 
reach  of  the  next  step,  and  every  path  has  led  to  a  longer 
and  wider  avenue  of  improvement.  The  time  may  come  in 
which  science  may  impress  into  the  service  of  the  cultivator 
every  element  or  substance  which  constitutes  the  globe  we 
inhabit — the  world  of  matter  become  completely  subservient 
to  the  world  of  mind.     Then  and  not  till  then  will  Agricul- 


8  PREFACE. 

ture  have  attained  the  utmost  degree  of  perfection  of  which 
it  is  capable. 

We  cannot  close  these  prefatory  remarks  without  tender- 
ing our  thanks  to  Mr.  J.  R.  Newell,  proprietor  of  the  Bos- 
ton Agricultural  Warehouse,  and  Mr.  G.  C.  Barkett,  pro- 
prietor of  the  New  England  Farmer,  and  of  the  Boston  Seed 
Store,  for  facilities  and  information  aflbrded  for  the  work 
which  we  have  here  submitted  to  the  agricultural  community. 
To  Mr.  Newell  we  are  indebted  for  the  Cuts  and  Descriptions 
which  come  under  the  head  '  Agricultural  Implements,'  page 
329 ;  and  Mr.  Barrett  has  assisted  us  in  the  plan  of  this 
treatise.  These  gentlemen  have  for  sale,  at  No.  52  North 
Market  Street,  Boston,  the  Machines,  Implements,  Seeds, 
&€.,  described  or  referred  to  in  the  following  pages. 

T.  G.  Fessenden. 

Boston,  May,  1834. 


ADVERTISEMENT  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 

The  first  edition  of  The  Complete  Farmer  and  Rural  Eco- 
iwmist  has  met  with  a  kind  reception  from  a  liberal  and  en- 
lightened community,  and  a  more  rapid  sale  than  the  Author's 
most  sanguine  hopes  had  led  him  to  anticipate.  It  has  also 
been  honored  by  favorable  notices  and  reviews  from  compe- 
tent judges,  some  of  which  are  given  on  a  preceding  page. 
These  encouraging  circumstances  have  induced  him  to  re- 
vise and  correct  it  with  care  and  circumspection,  and  to  add 
several  articles,  including  Rice,  Tobacco,  &;c.  with  a  view  to 
adapt  it  to  the  southern,  as  well  as  to  the  middle  and  north- 
ern section  of  the  Union. 

In  preparing  the  present  edition  for  the  press  we  have  so- 
licited the  scrutiny,  and  been  assisted  with  the  advice  of 
several  gentlemen,  eminent  as  practical  and  scientific  culti- 
vators, to  whom  we  tender  our  best  acknowledgments.  And 
we  beg  leave  to  state  that  we  are  under  great  obligations  to 
the  Hon.  John  Lowell,  who  has  revised  the  present  edition, 
and  thus  given  additional  proof  of  his  ability  and  readiness 
to  promote  the  great  art  to  which  this  little  work  is  devoted, 
and  of  which  he  has  long  been  a  zealous,  liberal  and  enlight- 
ened patron.  T.  G.  F. 


CONTENTS. 


Page, 

Soils,  • 11 

Grasses, 15 

On  sowing  Grass  Seeds, 25 

Grain,  28 

Indian  Corn, c         .  28 

Neat  Cattle, 39 

Calves, 57 

Oxen,  64 

Diseases  of  Cattle, 69 

Barns,  74 

Barn-yards 77 

Dairy, 80 

On  Making  and  Preserving  Butter, 81 

Cheese, 91 

Hemp, 94 

Flax, 104 

Wheat, 112 

Black  Sea  Wheat, 128 

Rye, 130 

Oats, , 138 

Barley, 141 

Millet, 145 

Buckwheat, 148 

Rice, 149 

Hops, 150 

Pea, 155 

Beans, 160 

Swine,  .         . 163 

Sows  devouring  their  Offspring, 171 

Manures, 174 

Liquid  Manure, 182 

Manure  for  Grass  Grounds, 186 

Manure  from  Swme, 190 

Advantages  of  Lime, 191 

Stimulation  of  Soils, 194 

Gypsum, 199 

Marl, 205 

Peat, 209 


X  CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Bones  for  Manure, 213 

Fences,      ..........  214 

Hedges, 216 

Sheep, 218 

Ewes,  Lambs,  &c. 222 

Shearing  Sheep, 229 

Disorders  of  Sheep, 234 

Horse, 240 

Diseases  of  Horses, 245 

Stables  for  Horses, .         .         .  248 

Colts, 254 

Mangel-AVurtzel, 255 

KutaBaga, 264 

English  Turnips,         .         .        - 267 

Potatoes, 271 

Cotton, 277 

Tobacco, 279 

Ploughing, 281 

mode  of  by  E.  Phinney,  Esq. 287 

Hay-making, 288 

Harvesting, 293 

Drains, 296 

Pasture, 299 

Poultry, 303 

Birds, 306 

Bushes, 311 

Irrigation, 312 

Woodland, 315 

Insects, 317 

Implements  of  Agriculture, 330 

Farmer's  Calendar, 360 

Index, 369 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER. 


SOILS.  A  farmer  should  be  well  informed  of  the  nature 
of  soils,  and  of  the  various  plants  adapted  to  them.  Some 
useful  plants  flourish  best  in  what  is  called  poor  land  ;  and 
if  cultivators  were  perfectly  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
adapting  plants  to  soils,  much  manure  might  be  saved,  which 
is  wasted  by  injudicious  and  improper  application. 

It  is  supposed  by  geologists  that  the  whole  of  this  earth 
originally  consisted  of  rocks,  of  various  sorts,  or  combina- 
tions. These  rocks  by  the  lapse  of  ages,  and  exposure  to 
air  and  Avater,  became  disintegrated  or  worn  in  part  or  alto- 
gether to  fine  particles,  which  compose  what  is  called  earths 
or  soils.  These  soils  are  chiefly  silica,  [sand  or  earth  of 
flints]  lime,  [or  calcareous  earth]  alumina,  [clay]  and  mag- 
nesia, [a  mineral  substance.]  With  these  are  blended  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  matters  in  a  decomposed  or  decomposing 
state,  and  saline,  acid,  or  alkaline  combinations. 

Plants  are  the  most  certain  indicators  of  the  nature  of  a 
soil ;  for  while  no  practical  cultivator  would  buy  or  under- 
take to  till  land  of  which  he  knew  only  the  results  of  chemi- 
cal analysis,  yet  every  farmer  and  gardener  who  knew  the 
timber  and  plants  a  soil  spontaneously  produced,  would  at 
once  be  able  to  decide  on  its  value  for  cultivation. 

It  was  a  maxim  of  Kliyogg,  a  famous  philosophical  farmer 
of  Switzerland, 'that  every  species  of  earth  may  be  instru- 
mental to  the  improvement  of  another  of  opposite  qualities.' 
All  sands  are  hot  and  dry — all  clays,  cold  and  wet ;  and, 
therefore,  the  manuring  sandy  lands  with  clay,  or  clay  lands 
with  sand,  is  best  for  grain  and  pulse.     But  it  is  not  the  na- 


12  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

tural  soil  only  that  the  farmer  ought  to  consider,  but  the  depth 
of  it,  and  what  lies  immediately  underneath  it.  For  if  the 
richest  soil  is  only  seven  or  eight  inches  deep,  and  lies  on  a 
cold  wet  clay  or  stone,  it  will  not  be  so  fruitful  as  leaner  soils 
that  lie  on  a  better  under  stratum.  Gravel  is,  perhaps,  the 
best  under  stratum  to  make  the  land  prolific. 

The  best  loams  and  natural  earths  are  of  a  bright  browTi,  or 
hazel  color.  Hence,  they  are  called  hazel  loams.  They 
cut  smooth  and  tolerably  easy,  without  clinging  to  the  spade 
or  ploughshare ;  are  light,  friable,  and  fall  into  small  clods 
without  chapping  or  cracking  in  dry  weather,  or  turning 
into  mortar  when  wet.  Dark  gray  and  russet  moulds  are 
accounted  the  next  best.  The  worst  of  all,  are  the  light  and 
dark  ash  colored.  The  goodness  of  land  may  also  be  very 
well  judged  of  by  the  smell  and  the  touch.  The  best  emits 
a  fresh  pleasant  scent  on  being  dug  or  ploughed  up,  espe- 
cially after  rain;  and  being  a  just  proportion  of  sand  and 
clay  intimately  blended,  will  not  stick  much  to  the  fingers  on 
handling.  But  all  soils,  however  good,  may  be  impoverish- 
ed, and  even  worn  out,  by  successive  crops  without  rest,  espe- 
cially if  the  ploughings  are  not  very  frequently  repeated 
before  the  seed  is  sown. 

If  we  examine  tracts  of  land  which  have  not  been  culti- 
vated, we  find  nature  has  adapted  different  kinds  of  plants  to 
most  of  the  distinguishable  varieties  of  soils;  and  though 
some  belonging  to  one  may  for  some  cause  or  other  be  found 
on  lands  of  a  different  quality,  they  seldom  thrive,  or  perfect 
their  seeds  so  as  to  become  general.  The  great  care  of  the 
farmer  ought,  therefore,  to  be,  by  proper  mixtures,  to  reduce 
his  land  to  that  state  and  temperament  in  which  the  extremes 
of  hot  and  cold,  wet  and  dry,  are  best  corrected  by  each  other ; 
to  give  them  every  possible  advantage  flowing  from  the  be- 
nign influences  of  sun  and  air  ;  and  to  adopt  such  kinds  of 
plants  as  they  afford  in  this  state  the  greatest  nourishment 
to ;  and  to  renew  their  fertility  by  a  judicious  allowance  of 
the  most  proper  manures.  Where  these  things  are  done,  there 
are  few  spots  so  unfriendly  to  cultivation  as  not  to  repay  his 
expenses  and  labor  with  a  plentiful  increase.  But  without 
these,  the  best  tracts  of  land  will  in  time  become  a  barren 
waste,  or  produce  little  but  woods. 

The  color  of  soils  is  important.  The  Farmer's  Journal 
observes,  coal  ashes  were  sprinkled  over  half  the  surface  of 
beds,  sown  with  peas,  beans,  &c.,  and  on  these  the  plants 
invariably  appeared  above  ground  two  or  three  days  earlier, 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


13 


©bviously  on  account  of  the  increased  warmth ;  it  being  a 
well-known  fact,  that  dark  colored  bodies  absorb  caloric 
more  readily,  and  in  larger  proportions  than  those  of  a  lighter 
hue. 

Soils  which  absorb  the  most  moisture  are  the  most  fertile. 
Sir  Humphrey  Davy  observed,  '  I  have  compared  the  ab- 
sorbent powers  of  many  soils  with  respect  to  atmospheric 
moisture,  and  I  have  ahvays  found  it  greatest  in  the  most 
fertile  soils;  so  that  it  affords  one  method  of  judging  of  the 
productiveness  of  land.' 

The  methods  of  improving  soils  are  too  numerous  to  be 
here  fully  specified.  We  will,  hoAvever,  quote  one  mode  of 
restoring  worn  out  fields  to  the  fertility  of  new  lands,  or 
lands  lately  cleared  from  their  aboriginal  growth  of  timber, 
quoted  from  a  '  Dissertation  on  the  mixture  of  soils,"  for  which 
the  author,  the  Rev.  Morrel  Allen,  of  Pembroke,  Massa- 
chusetts, was  awarded  a  premium  by  the  Plymouth  County 
Agricultural  society."^ 

'Particles  in  a  soil,  which  had  long  been  in  contact,  and 
in  consequence  of  long  connexion  lost  much  of  the  energy 
of  their  action  on  plants,  are  separtcd  in  mixing  soils,  placed 
in  new  connexions,  and  act  with  renewed  vigor.  But  the 
most  permanent  and  best  effects  are  always  expected  from 
the  mixture  of  soils  of  different  qualities.  When  the  object 
is  to  produce  as  much  immediate  influence  as  possible,  merely 
tu  assist  one  short  rotation  of  crops,  to  have  the  application 
we  make  act  chiefly  as  manure,  then  we  may  take  our  ma- 
terials from  any  situation  where  we  know  \  egetable  substan- 
ces have  fallen  and  decayed. 

'We  may  go  into  forests,  and  in  certain  stages  of  the 
growth  of  the  wood,  without  any  perceptible  injury,  skim 
the  surface  of  the  whole  lot.  This  soil  of  the  woods,  carried 
in  sufficiently  large  quantities  on  to  old  fields,  will  restore 
them  to  original  productiveness.  And  this  will  sometimes 
prove  an  inexhaustible  resource  for  renewing  old  fields ;  for 
as  often  as  the  fields  decline,  the  soil  in  the  wood  lot  will  be 
again  renewed  and  fit  to  remove.  For  the  same  purposes 
the  earth  should  be  carried  from  the  sides  of  walls  and  fences, 
where  the  leaves  have  been  lodged  from  the  forests.  It 
should  also  be  carried  from  hollows  and  temporary  ponds, 
which  in  certain  seasons  of  the  year  become  di-y,  and  afford 


*  See  N.  E.  Farmer,  vol.  x.  p.  249. 
2 


14  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

immense  quantities  of  vegetable  matter  in  different  stages 
of  decomposition,  and  suitable  to  apply  to  any  kind  of  soil. 

*  Where  streams  of  water  occasionally  overflow  the  banks, 
an  abundance  of  vegetable  and  earthy  matter  is  lodg-ed  on 
the  meadows,  which  in  many  cases,  especially  where  there 
is  not  much  extent  of  meadow  to  receive  the  substances  con- 
veyed by  the  stream,  it  is  prudent  to  remove  on  to  higher 
land.  It  will  there  act  as  manure,  and  at  the  same  time 
gradually  alter  the  texture  of  the  soil,  rendering  it  more  re- 
tentive of  dew  and  rain,  and  easily  penetrated  by  the  fibrous 
roots  of  plants.  Of  the  value  of  those  substances  which  are 
carried  in  streams  of  water  to  enrich  soils,  we  have  the  most 
convincing  proof  in  the  unexampled  productiveness  of  interval 
lands.  It  is  not  exclusively  the  vegetable  substances  carried 
on  to  these  lands  which  make  them  so  astonishingly  pro- 
ductive ;  there  is  a  portion  of  every  kind  of  soil  existing  in 
the  surrounding  country  annually  carried  on  with  the  vege- 
table substances.  Intervals  are  composed  of  every  sort  of 
earth  the  water  can  reach  and  remove.  This  circumstance 
may  properly  encourage  the  mixtures  of  many  kinds  of  earth, 
even  when  there  is  no  particular  evidence  that  each  kind  is 
especially  adapted  to  remedy  any  deficiency  in  the  soil 
which  we  would  improve.  Thei-e  is  less  hazard  in  adminis- 
tering medicines  in  great  profusion  to  cure  diseases  in  the 
soil,  than  in  the  human  body.  In  stepping  out  of  the  beaten 
path  of  habitual  practice,  and  calling  attention  to  experi- 
ments, which  to  some  may  Jook  very  simple,  and  to  others 
very  absurd,  we  may  become  instrumental  in  the  discovery  of 
highly  important  truths.' 

It  will  not  do  however  to  spread  pond  mud  directly  on 
grass  land  or  on  arable  ground.  An  (experienced  farmer  in- 
forms us  that  he  once  injured  a  piece  of  grass  land  by  spread- 
ing pond  mud  upon  it  without  preparation.  It  should  be 
mixed  with  lime  and  warmer  manure,  and  exposed  to  the  at- 
mosphere, or  put  into  the  barn-yard  to  be  trodden  upon  by 
cattle. 

Arthur  Young  lays  it  down  as  a  maxim,  that  a  strong, 
harsh,  tenacious  claj'-,  though  it  will  yield  great  crops  of 
wheat,  is  yet  managed  at  so  heavy  expense,  that  it  is  usually 
let  for  more  than  it  is  worth.  Much  money  is  not  made  on 
such  land.  The  very  contrary  soil,  a  light,  poor,  dry  sand, 
is  very  often,  indeed,  in  the  occupation  of  men  who  have 
made  fortunes.  Some  permanent  manure  is  usually  below 
the  surface,  which  answers  well  to  carry  on ;  and  sheep,  the 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  15 

common  stock  of  such  soils,  is  the  most  profitable  sort  he 
can  depend  on. 


GEASSES.  The  limits  of  our  plan  will  oblige  us  in  this, 
as  in  many  other  articles,  to  omit,  or  give  but  brief  sketches 
of  subjects  which  might  be  profitably  attended  to  in  more 
minute  detail. 

Grass  is  a  general  name  for  plants  used  in  feeding  cattle 
in  a  green  or  dry  state,  for  hay,  or  for  pasture. 

It  would  require  a  large  volume  to  describe  all  the  kinds 
of  grass  which  are  or  may  be  cultivated  in  the  United 
States.  Sir  John  Sinclair  observed,  (Code  of  Agriculture, 
p.  219,)  that  there  are  in  all  two  hundred  and  fifteen  grasses, 
properly  so  called,  which  are  cultivated  in  Great  Britain. 
The  duke  of  Bedford  caused  a  series  of  experiments  to  be 
instituted  by  George  Sinclair,  to  try  the  comparative  merits 
and  value  of  a  number  of  these  grasses,  to  the  amount  of 
ninety-seven,  the  result  of  which  is  annexed  to  Sir  Humphrey 
Davy's  Agricultural  Chemistry.  According  to  these  experi- 
ments, tall  fescue  grass  {festuca  elatior)  stands  highest  as  to 
the  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  afforded  by  the  whole  crop, 
when  cut  at  the  time  of  flowering ;  and  meadow  cat's-tail 
grass,  phleiLin  pratense,  called  in  New  England  herd's  grass, 
and  timothy  grass  in  the  southern  states,  affords  most  food, 
when  cut  at  the  time  the  seed  is  ripe. 

An  able  and  elaborate  article  on  the  grasses,  Avritten  by 
Judge  Buel,  republished  from  the  American  Farmer,  was 
given  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  ii.  p.  161,  174. 
This  consisted  of  a  '  Table,  exhibiting,  in  one  view,  the  com- 
parative talue  of  some  of  the  best  grasses  cultivated  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Great  Britain,  their  products,  nutritive 
matter,  time  of  flowering  and  seeding,  &c.'  To  this  are  added 
remarks,  from  which  we  have  extracted  the  following : 

'  I  have  found  in  our  publications  on  agriculture  very  little 
information  on  the  improvement  of  our  meadow  and  pasture 
grounds.  Indeed,  the  names  of  our  native  grasses  are  scarce- 
ly enumerated,  much  less  are  their  habits  described,  or  their 
relative  merits  for  hay  and  pasture  pointed  out,  in  any  Ame- 
rican work  which  has  fallen  within  my  notice.  A  conside- 
rable portion  of  our  lands  are  unsuitable  for  the  system  of 
convertible  husbandry,  that  is,  an  alternation  of  grain  and 
grass  crops.  Of  this  description  are  our  stiff  clays,  marshes, 
and  swamps,  and  all  those  lands  in  which  tillage  is  rendered 


16  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

difficult  by  reason  of  hard  pan,  stones,  or  wetness.  These 
should  be  improved  as  permanent  meadoAvs  and  pastures; 
and  it  is  of  the  first  importance  to  the  farmer  to  know  the 
grasses  Avliich  will  render  them  most  conducive  to  profit ;  for 
that  our  grass  gTounds  are  as  susceptible  of  improvement  as 
our  tillage  grounds,  by  a  suitable  selection  of  seeds  and  suita- 
ble management,  must  be  apparent  to  every  reflecting  mind. 
The  improvement  and  productiveness  of  our  cattle  and  sheep 
husbandry,  which  at  this  time  deservedly  engage  much  of  the 
public  attention,  depend  materially  on  this  branch  of  farming.' 

After  adverting  to  the  sources  from  which  the  writer  de- 
rived most  of  his  information,  he  proceed? : 

'  Siveet-scented  Vernal  Grass.  Tliis  is  a  grass  of  diminu- 
tive growth,  and  is  not  worth  cultivating  for  hay.  It  is 
nevertheless  considered  as  valuable  in  pasture  on  account  of 
its  affording  very  early  feed,  and  growina:  quick  after  being 
cropped.  We  are  advised  by  Muhlenburg  that  it  delights 
in  moist  soils,  by  the  Bath  papers  that  it  does  well  in  clay- 
ey loams,  and  by  Dickson  that  it  grows  in  almost  any  soil, 
including  bogs  and  sands.  G.  Sinclair  says  it  is  eaten  by 
oxen,  horses,  and  sheep,  though  not  so  freely  as  some  other 
grasses  are."^ 

Meadoio  Fox  Tail  possesses  all  the  advantages  of  early, 
growth  with  the  preceding,  and  is  much  more  abundant  in 
product  and  nutriment.  It  generally  constitutes  one  of  five 
or  six  kinds  which  are  sowed  together  by  the  English  far- 
mers for  pasture ;  and  affords  withal  a  tolerable  crop  of  hay. 
It  does  best  in  moist  soils,  whether  loams,  clays,  or  reclaim- 
ed bogs.  Sheep  and  horses  have  a  better  relish  for  it,  says 
G.  Sinclair,  than  oxen. 

Bough  Cock's  Foot.  Dr.  Muhlenburgh  and  T.  Cooper 
concur  in  opinion  that  this  is  the  orchard  griss  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  though  some  that  I  have  raised  as  orchard  grass 
does  not  seem  to  correspond  Avith  the  figure  of  the  dactylis 
glomerata,  in  the  second  volume  of  Dickson's  Farmer's  Com- 
panion. In  England,  cock's  foot  is  taking  the  place  of  rye 
grass  with  clovers.  Arthur  Young  speaks  in  high  commen- 
dation of  it;  though  all  A\Titers  concur  in  the  opinion,  that 

*  Judge  Buel  does  not  seem  to  have  been  personally  ac(iuainted  with 
this  invaluable  grass.  Its  proper  situation  is  high,  well  drain'ed  meadows. 
It  constitutes,  in  such  meadows,  in  Massachusetts,  at  least  one-half  of 
the  whcle  crop.  Its  chief  fault  is  that  it  is  too  early  for  the  other  grasses, 
but  it  affords  a  second  and  even  third  crop  if  cut  early.  It  is  the  grass 
which  gives  the  finest  flavor  so  grateful  to  milch  cows. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  17 

it  should  be  frequently  and  closely  cropped,  either  with  the 
scythe  or  cattle,  to  reap  the  full  benefit  of  its  great  merits,  I 
should  prefer  it  to  almost  every  other  grass ;  and  cows  are 
very  fond  of  it.  Cooper  rates  it  above  timothy,  and  says  it 
is  graduall}^  taking  the  place  of  the  latter  among  the  best 
farmers  about  Philadelphia.  This  is  probably  owing  to  the 
fact  that  it  is  earlier  than  timothy,  and  of  course  more  suita- 
ble to  cut  with  clover  for  hay.  Its  growth  is  early  and  ra- 
pid, after  it  has  been  cropped.  It  does  well  on  loams  and 
sands,  and  grows  well  in  shade. 

If  farther  facts  are  wanting  in  favor  of  this  grass  for  pas- 
ture, the  reader  will  find  them  in  an  article  in  the  American 
Farmer  of  the  14th  November,  1823,  wdth  the  signature,  sup- 
posed to  be  colonel  Pow^el's,  a  gentleman  who  combines  as  much 
science  with  judicious  practice,  especially  in  cattle  and  grass 
husbandry,  as  any  person  in  the  Union.  He  says,  "  I  have 
tried  orchard  grass  for  ten  years.  It  produces  more  pastu- 
rage than  any  artificial  grass  I  have  seen  in  America."  Sow 
two  bushels  of  seed  to  an  acre. 

Tall  Oat  Grass.  Both  Arator  (Mr.  Taylor)  and  Dr. 
Muhlenburgh  have  placed  this  at  the  head  of  their  lists  of 
grasses,  which  they  have  recommended  to  the  attention  of 
the  American  farmer.  The  latter  says  it  is  of  all  others 
the  earliest  and  best  grass  for  green  fodder  and  hay.  The 
doctor  was,  probably,  not  apprized  of  its  deficiency  in  nutri- 
tive matter  as  indicated  in  the  table.  It  possesses  the  ad- 
vantage of  early,  quick,  and  late  growth,  for  which  the  cock's 
foot  is  esteemed,  tillers  well,  and  is  admirably  calculated  for 
pasture  grass.  I  measured  some  on  the  20th  of  June,  when 
in  blossom,  when  it  should  be  cut  for  hay,  and  found  it  four 
and  a  half  feet  long.  The  latter  math  is  nearh;  equal  in 
weight,  and  superior  in  nutritious  matter  to  the  seed  crop. 

Tall  Feraie,  although  a  native  grass,  has  not  fallen  under 
my  persona^  observation.  It  stands  highest,  says  Davy, 
according  to  the  experiments  of  the  duke  of  Bedford,  of  any 
grass,  pr  )perly  so  called,  as  to  the  quantity  of  nutritive  matter 
afforded  by  the  whole  crop,  when  cut  at  the  time  of  flower- 
ing; ar»d  meadow  cat's-tail  (timothy)  grass  affords  most 
food,  when  cut  at  the  time  the  seed  is  ripe.  It  grows  natu- 
rally in  wet  grounds,  in  bog  meadows,  and  on  the  sides  of 
ditches  :)fien  to  the  height  of  four  or  fi^e  feet.  Our  igno- 
rance (>^  arricuitural  botany,  and  of  the  intrinsic  value  of 
this  gr»«?s,  can  lAone  have  preverted  its  being  more  generally 
known  ind  cultivated.  It  must  be  very  valuable  for  wet 
2^ 


18 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


grounds,  as  from  its  rapid  ^owth  it  is  calculated  to  smother 
or  keep  down  the  coarser  kinds,  which  naturally  abound  in 
these  situations. 

Rye  Grass  is  extensively  cultivated  in  Scotland  and  ihe 
north  of  England,  and  where  cock's  foot  has  not  superseded 
it,  is  generally  mixed  with  clover  seeds.  It  is  rather  declin- 
ing in  public  estimation.  It  does  well  in  pasture  ;  and  as 
it  contains  much  nutriment,  is  considered  valuable  for  cows 
and  sheep.  Dickson  says  it  does  best  in  rich  moist  mea- 
dows.    Young  does  not  speak  well  of  it. 

Red  Clover.  There  are  many  species  of  the  trifolium,  and 
several  varieties  of  the  red  clover.  Whether  the  kind  we 
generally  cultivate  is  the  pratense,  or  not,  I  am  unable  to 
determine.  The  character  of  red  clover  as  an  ameliorating 
fertilizing  crop,  is  too  generally  known  to  require  illustration. 
It  cannot  be  depended  upon  or  permanent  grass  lands;  though 
it  yields  to  no  grass  for  alternating  with  grain  in  convertible 
husbandry.  It  formerly  was  as  indispensable  in  a  course  of 
crops  in  Norfolk,  England,  (which  has  been  considered  pre- 
eminent for  good  tillage,)  as  turnips ;  and  the  maxim  was, 
and  still  is,  'no  turnips,  no  crops.'  But  it  appears  from 
Young's  survey  of  that  country,  that  it  cannot  now  be  de- 
pended on  oftener  than  once  in  from  eight  to  twelve  years. 
Trefoil,  white  clover,  cock's  foot,  rye  grass,  &c.,  are  therefore 
alternated  with  red  clover  in  the  grass  years.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  neither  red  clover,  nor  other  grasses, 
will  bear  repeating  for  a  course  of  years  upon  the  generality 
of  soils.  They  exhaust  the  ground  of  the  peculiar  nourish- 
ment required  for  their  support.  In  Great  Britain  white 
clover,  trefoil,  rye  grass  or  cock's  foot  are  generally  sown 
with  red  clover  seeds.  From  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  of 
seeds  are  sown  to  the  acre.  In  the  northern  states.,  timothy 
is  generally  sown  with  clover ;  though  the  mixture  is  an  im- 
proper one  for  hay  ;  for  the  clover  is  fit  for  the  scythe  ten  or 
fifteen  days  before  the  timothy  has  arrived  to  maturity.  If 
sown  alone,  from  eight  to  sixteen  pounds  of  clover  seed  should 
be  put  on  an  acre;  more  on  old  land  than  on  new. 

White  or  Dutch  Clover,  {trifolium  repens,)  is  considered 
in  England  of  importance  to  husbandry,  if  we  are  to  judge 
from  the  great  quantity  of  seed  which  is  there  sovv^n  annually. 
With  us,  many  districts  produce  it  spontaneously ;  but  it  is 
too  seldom  sown.  It  shrinks  greatly  in  drying,  and  does  not 
contain  as  much  nutritive  matter  as  red  clover ;  yet  its  value 
as  a  pasture  grass  is  universally  admitted.     Its  increase  is 


AND    RURAI,   ECONOMIST.  19 

very  much  facilitated  by  a  top  dressing  of  gypsum  lime  or 
ashes. 

Lnccrnc,  although  affording  much  more  green  food,  con- 
tains less  nutriment  in  a  single  crop  than  red  clover.  It 
must,  however,  he  borne  in  mind,  that  it  grows  much  quicker 
than  clover,  and  will  bear  cutting  twice  as  often.  In  the 
soiling  system,  an  acre  of  lucerne  will  keep  four  cattle  or 
horses  from  the  LSth  May  to  the  first  of  October.  I  cut  a 
piece  about  the  15th  ox  May,  and  again  about  the  20th  of 
June,  to  feed  green,  and  then  ploughed  {he  ground,  and 
cropped  it  with  ruta  baga,  which  yielded  sixteen  tons  to  the 
acre  of  roots,  as  fine  as  I  ever  Law.  Mr.  Fowell  (see 
Young's  Norfolk,  p.  345)  derived  a  clear  profit  of  thirteen 
pounds  seventeen  shillings  and  four-pence  per  acre  from  his 
lucerne,  fed  green  to  working  horses.  This  is  almost  equal 
to  sixty  dollars  the  acre.  An  idea  has  prevailed  that  it  will 
not  thrive  in  this  latitude,  (42-3, )  but  the  experiments  o^  the 
late  chancellor  Livmgston,  and  of  Le  Roy  de  Chaumont, 
prove  otherwise.  I  sowed  seed  in  1S21,  at  the  rate  of  six 
pounds  the  acre,  with  barley.  It  has  stood  the  w^inters  well, 
much  better  than  clover  ;  and  has  been  in  a  state  of  progres- 
sive improvement.  Drought  has  not  affected  it.  The  plants 
are  very  tender  the  first  year ;  and  require  either  a  very 
clean  tilth,  or  to  be  kept  free  from  weeds  and  grass  with  a 
hoe  the  first  year.  It  should  have  a  deep  loam,  as  it  sends 
down  tap  roois  five  or  six  feet ;  and  it  is  equally  necessary 
that  the  ground  should  not  be  wet.  It  may  be  sown  either 
in  drills  or  broad-cast,  with  or  without  grain.  Fifteen 
pounds  of  seed  are  required  for  the  acre  if  drilled,  and  twenty 
is  not  too  much  if  sown  broad-cast.  To  the  proprietor  of  a 
dairy,  an  acre  or  two  of  lucerne  would  be  valuable,  to  be  fed 
to  his  cows  in  addition  to  ordinary  pasture.^ 

Long-rooted  Clover  is  a  nati\e  uf  Hungary,  and  I  do  not 
think  has  ever  found  its  way  across  the  Atlantic.  The  root 
is  biennial,  and  if  sown  in  the  fall,  lasts  only  during  the  next 
season.  It  penetrates  to  a  great  depth  in  the  ground,  and 
consequently  is  but  little  affected  by  drought.  It  therefore 
requires  a  deep  dry  soil.  The  product  of  this  grass,  when 
compared  to  others  that  are  allied  to  it  in  habit  and  place 
of  growth,  proves  greatly  superior.  It  affords  twice  the 
weight  of  grass,  and  more  than  double  the  nutritive  matter 

*  For  farther  remarks  on  the  culture  of  lucern?,  see  N.  £.  Farmer,  vol. 
ii.  p.  342. 


20  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

that  is  given  by  the  common  clover.  It  gives  abundance  of 
seed  ;  and,  says  G.  Sinclair,  if  the  ground  be  kept  free  of 
weeds,  it  sows  itself,  vegetates,  and  grows  rapidly,  without 
covering  in,  or  any  operation  whatever.  Four  years  it  has 
propagated  itself  in  this  manner  on  the  space  of  ground 
which  it  now  occupies,  and  from  which  this  statement  of  its 
comparative  value  is  made.  This  species  would,  no  doubt, 
prove  a  valuable  acquisition  to  our  husbandry,  whether  wo 
consider  its  value  for  green  food,  hay,  or  as  a  green  crop  to 
be  turned  in  preparatory  to  grain. 

Sai?i  Foin  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  a  calcareous  or  chalky 
soil.  It  is  true  it  is  cultivated  in  Norfolk,  England,  which 
is  a  soil  of  sand  and  loam,  naturally  destitute  of  calcareous 
matter.  But  it  is  common  there  to  drefc:s  their  lands  with 
clay  marl,  which  abounds  with  carbonate  of  lime;  without 
which  dressing,  says  Young,  Norfolk  soils  will  not  grow 
sain  foin.  This  writer  considers  it  '  one  of  the  most  valua- 
ble plants  that  were  ever  introduced  into  the  agriculture  of 
Great  Britain.'  The  well-known  Mr.  Coke  cultivates  four 
hundred  acres  of  this  grass,  and  sows  it  without  other  seeds. 
Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  cultivate  sain  foin  in 
this  country,  but  hitherto  I  believe  without  success."^ 

Timothy.  This  grass  is  distinguished  in  Great  Britain 
by  the  name  of  'meadoio  cafs-tail ;  in  New  England  by 
that  of  herd's  grass.  It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  grasses 
that  are  cultivated ;  and,  what  is  worthy  the  notice  of  every 
farmer,  it  affords  more  than  double  the  nutriment  when  cut 
in  the  seed  to  what  it  does  in  the  flower.  In  tenacious, 
strong,  and  moist  soils  it  is  entitled  to  a  precedence,  perhaps, 
to  any  single  grass  for  hay,  yet  does  not  seem  to  be  suitable 
to  mix  with  clover  seeds  when  intended  for  meadow.  An- 
other consideration,  which  renders  it  particularly  worthy  of 
attention,  is  the  seed  which  it  affords,  and  which  may  be 
saved  without  materially  diminishing  the  hay  crop.  From 
ten  to  thirty  bushels  of  seed  may  be  taken  from  an  acre  of 
timothy,  which,  at  the  price  it  now  bears,  is  of  itself  a  hand- 
some remuneration. 

Fiorin  has  of  late  years  been  brought  into  notice  in 
Great  Britain,  by  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Richardson ;  who 
particularly  recommended  it  for  the  cold  boggy  soils  of  the 

*  Sain  foin  may  be  considered  as  out  of  the  question  in  New  England. 
So  large  a  portion  is  wi"ter-killed  that  it  is  not  worth  cultivation.  This 
is  affirmed  on  the  strength  of  repeated  trials. 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  21 

mountainous  districts,  where  ordinary  grasses  would  not 
thrive.  The  peculiar  value  of  the  fioiin,  and  of  other 
grasses  of  the  agrostis  family,  arises  from  their  fitness  for 
winter  'pasture  :  as  they  lose  very  little  of  their  bulk  or  nu- 
triment by  remaining  in  the  soil  after  they  have  ceased  to 
gi'ow.  Its  name  {creeping  bent  or  couch  gras^)  implies  a 
difficulty  in  mowing  it,  except  on  a  surface  perfectly  smooth. 
We  hav'e  seen  it  recommended  to  the  notice  of  American 
farmers ;  but  from  the  very  limited  progress  which  seems  to 
have  been  made  in  its  cultivation  we  infer  that  it  has  fallen 
short  of  public  expectation. 

Upright  bent  Grass.  Dr.  Muhlenburgh  considers  this  the 
herd's  grass  of  the  southern,  and  the  foul  meadow  of  the 
eastern  states,  of  which  ivhite  top  and  red  top  are  var'eties. 
This  grass  is  more  congenial  to  our  climate  than  to  that  of 
England.  In  any  boggy  soils,  both  varieties  of  this  grass 
have  come  in  spontaneously,  as  soon  as  the  ground  has  been 
cleared  and  drained,  have  soon  formed  a  compact  sod,  and 
afforded  good  hay  and  good  pasture. 

Flat-stalked  Meadoio  Grass.  This,  according  to  Muhlen- 
burgh,  is  the  blue  grass,  which  is  considered  as  a  pest  in 
many  of  our  tillage  grounds.  The  small  crop  which  it  gives, 
and  the  little  nutritive  matter  which  this  affords,  shows  the 
little  dependence  which  ought  to  be  placed  on  it  for  grazing, 
or  for  hay. 

Smooth-stalked  Meadow  Grass  is  a  native  plant,  and  is  well 
adapted  for  permanent  pastures.  It  grows  quick  after  being 
cropped,  and  does  well  upon  dry  ground. 

Floating  Fescue  grows  well  in  swamps  and  bog  soils,  where 
good  kinds  are  most  wanted. 

I  would  suggest,  with  much  deference,  whether  grasses 
may  not  be  divided,  for  the  practical  benefit  of  the  farmer, 
into  three  kinds,  to  wit  :  Cultivated  grasses.  All  kinds, 
strictly  speaking,  which  the  soil  does  not  produce  sponta- 
neously, are  cultivated  grasses.  Cut  the  term  as  generally 
used,  and  in  the  sense  I  here  employ  it,  applies  only  to  such 
as  are  sown  to  alternate  with  grain,  pulse,  and  roots,  in  a 
systematic  rotation  of  crops.  The  grasses  selected  for  this 
purpose  are,  generally,  the  red  clovers,  lucerne,  sain  foin, 
orchard,  tall  oat,  timothy,  cr  rye  grass.  Clover  is  the  pri- 
mary dependence  on  all  soils  which  will  grow  it,  and  espe- 
cially where  gypsum  can  exercise  its  magic  powers.  As 
vegetables  are  said  to  exhaust  the  soil  in  proportion  to  the 
smallness  of  their  leaves,   (the  larger  the  leaves  the  more 


22  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

nutriment  they  draw  from  the  atmosphere,  and  the  less  from 
the  soil.)  clovers  are  entitled  to  the  high  commendation  they 
have  obtained  among  American  farmers.  But  as  these  plants 
are  liable  to  permature  destruction  by  the  frosts  of  winter, 
it  is  both  prudent  and  wise  to  intermix  with  their  seeds  those 
of  some  other  grasses  more  to  be  depended  on. 

For  this  purpose, 

On  sands,  loams,  and  gravels,  and  these  constitute  the  soils 
usually  employed  in  convertible  husbandry,  the  orchard 
grass  or  tall  meadow  oat  grass  appear  to  be  best  calculated 
to  insure  profit.  They  grow  early,  delight  in  a  clover  sod, 
and  are  fit  for  the  scythe  when  clover  is  in  the  bloom,  the 
time  it  ought  to  be  cut.  The  hay  from  this  mixture  may 
be  made  before  harvest  commences ;  and  if  the  soil  is  good, 
a  second  crop  may  be  cut  almost  equal  to  the  first.  If  in- 
tended for  pasture  the  second  year,  either  of  these  grasses 
will  afford  more  abundant  food  than  timothy. 

In  clays,  the  meadow  fox  tail,  an  excellent  grass,  might 
be  substituted,  though,  according  to  Sinclair,  the  tall  oat 
grass  will  do  well  here  also.  In  wet  soils,  where  cl-^vers  do 
not  grow  well,  timothy  and  meadow  reed  grass  would  be  a 
good  selection,  sown  either  separate  or  together. 

Lucjrne  and  sain  foin  require  a  deep  dry  soil,  and  are 
generally  sown  without  other  seeds.  The  first  does  not  at- 
tain to  perfection  before  the  third  year  ;  and  both,  where 
successfully  cultivated,  are  permitted  to  occupy  the  ground 
from  six  to  eight  years. 

2d.  Meadow  grasses.  In  selecting  these  the  object  is  to 
obtain  the  greatest  burthen  of  good  hay,  and  to  mix  those 
kinds  Avhich  may  be  profitably  cut  at  the  same  time. 

For  clayey  and  moist  soils,  many  valuable  and  nutritious 
kinds  seem  to  be  well  adapted  ;  that  is  to  say,  meadow  fox 
tail,  timothy,  tall  oat,  meadow  soft  grass,  floating  fescue, 
rye  grass,  reed  meadow,  smooth-stalked  meadow,  Ameri- 
can cock's  foot,  upright  bent  or  herd's  grass,  and  tall  fes- 
cue. And  the  five  last  are  peculiarly  suited  to  swamp  or 
bog  soils.  For  dry  loams,  sands,  and  gravels,  which  never 
ought  to  be  kept  long  in  grass,  the  cock's  foot  or  orchard 
grass,  and  tall  oat,  are  probably  the  best ;  and  to  these  might 
be  added  red  and  white  clover. 

The  great  difficulty  is  to  prevent  the  deterioration  of 
meadows.  This  takes  place  from  the  better  grasses  running 
out,  and  gi-ving  place  to  coarser  kinds,  in  moss,  and  to  use- 
less or  noxious  plants,    aided    often  by   a  neglect  to  keep 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  23 

them  well  drained.  The  finer  and  more  nutritious  kinds 
thrive  best  in  moist,  though  they  :vill  not  live  long  in  wet 
soils.  Hence  it  is  of  the  first  importance  to  keep  the  sur- 
face soil  free  from  standing  wate^,  by  good  and  sufficient 
ditches ;  and  it  often  becomes  necessary,  and  it  is  in  most 
cases  advisable,  on  a  flat  surface,  to  lay  the  land  in  ridges 
at  right  angles  with  the  drains.  Another  precaution  to  be 
observed  is  noc  to  feed  them  with  stock  when  the  soil  is 
wet  and  poachy.  HarroAving  in  the  fall  has  been  found 
beneficial  to  meadows.  It  destroys  mosses,  and  covers  the 
seeds  of  grasses  which  have  fallen,  or  may  be  sown,  and 
thus  produces  a  continued  succession  of  young  plants.  In 
Europe,  Kme  is  used  with  good  effect  as  a  top  dressing  to 
grass  lands,  as  are  also  ashes.  With  us,  tlie  annual  appli- 
cation of  a  bushel  of  gypsum  to  the  acre  is  found  beneficial. 
It  not  only  thickens  the  verdure  with  clov^.r,  but  is  of  ad- 
vantage in  most  other  grasses.  Stable  manure  should  be 
used  only  when  it  can  be  spared  from  ths  more  profitable 
uses  of  tillage.  When  the  means  abo\'e  enumerated  fail  to 
insure  a  good  crop  of  hay,  it  is  time  to  resort  to  the  plough, 
and  a  course  of  crops. 

3d.  Pasture  grasses.  But  few  of  the  grasses  most  valued 
in  Great  Britain  for  pasture  are  the  natural  growth  of  the 
United  States ;  but  it  is  believed  that  if  the  seeds  are  once 
introduced  upon  our  farms,  we  shall  find  little  difficulty  in 
naturalizing  them.  Neither  the  orchard  nor  vernal  grass, 
which  are  said  to  be  indigenous  to  orr  country,  are  recog- 
nised in  the  grass  lands  which  have  come  within  my  ob- 
servation :  yet  they  constitute,  with  fox  tail  and  tall  oat 
grass,  the  earliept  and  most  valuable  varieties  for  peren- 
nial pastures.  The  meadow  fox  tail  and  orchard  grass, 
together  with  our  white  clover  and  green  meadow  grass, 
poa  trivialis,  (which  seldom  require  to  be  sown,)  I  think 
would  form  the  best  selection  for  all  grounds  which  are 
moderately  dry.  The  rye  and  oat  grasses,  or  meadow  soft 
grass,  might  be  either  substituted  for  the  two  first,  or  com- 
bined with  them.  These  would  afTcrd  spring,  summer,  and 
fall  feed,  abundant  in  quantity  and  wholesome  and  nutritious 
in  quality.  On  wet  soils,  (though  pastures  require  to  be 
drained,  as  well  as  meadows,  to  insure  a  rich  herbage,) 
the  tall  fescue,  smooth-stalked  meadow,  upright  bent,  and 
herd's  grass,  may  be  introduced  to  advantage.  Gypsum  is 
applied  to  pastures  with  the  same  benefit  that  it  is  to  mea- 
dows.' 


24  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

Two  able  papers,  '  On  Grasses'  have  been  written  by 
the  Hon.  John  Welles,  for  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
Repository.  One  of  these,  republished  in  the  New  England 
Farmer,  vol.  i.  page  235,  contains  the  following  observa- 
tions on  the  loss  of  weight  of  certain  grasses,  by  evapora- 
tion, '  in  the  process  of  drying  or  making,  for  safe  and  use- 
ful preservation.' 

It  should  be  premised  that  the  time  of  cutting  the  several 
grasses,  &:c.,  in  the  following  statement,  was  the  same  as  is 
usually  practised  by  husbandmen  in  this  sta*e. 

'  Of  100  lbs.   of  vegetables,    cured   in    1822, 
was  as  follows,  viz. : 

100  lbs.  of  green  white  clover  gave  of  hay, 

100    "     of  red  do. 

100    "     of  herd's  grass, 

100     "     of  fresh  meadow, 

100    "     of  salt  grass, 

100    "     of  mixed  2d  crop,  English  rowen, 

100    "     of  corn  stalks, 

100    "     of  do.  cut  in  the  milk  with  the  ear, 

'  It  is  to  be  observed  that  thj  weight  will  vary  from  ripe- 
ness, and  many  other  causes,  such  as  wetness  of  season, 
shade,  thickness  of  growth,  &c.' 

In  a  subsequent  number  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricul- 
tural Repository,  was  pi^lished  another  elaborate  communi- 
cation from  the  same  pen,  from  which  the  following  table  is 
extracted. 

Table  showing  the  loss  pf  weight  in  drying  grasses. 


the 

product 

17i  lbs. 

27^" 

40     « 

38    « 

39     " 

I 

18J" 

25     " 

( 

25     " 

1822. 

1823. 

100  lbs 

of  green  white  cl 

over=^ 

gave 

17J 

27 

100    " 

of  red!  clover, 

u 

27^ 

25 

100    " 

of  herd's  grass, 

(( 

40 

39 

100    " 

of  fresh  meadow, 

u 

38 

44 

100    " 

of  salt  grass,t 

(( 

39 

60 

100    " 

of  2d  crop,  or  English 

rowen, 

"       18S 

19 

*  The  white  clover  of  1822  was  taken  in  the  shade  ;  that  in  1823, 
from  a  light  warm  soil  exposed  to  the  sun. 

t  The  rea  clover  in  1823  'was  ta^cen  in  the  first  year  of  its  product,  in 
close  g.owth,  and  for  that  reason  falls  short  of  1822. 

I  The  salt  grass  of  1822  was,  I  have  reason  to  suppose,  a  second 
growth,  which  accounts  for  the  difference  of  the  two  years. 

If  enabled,  experiments  will  in  these  cases  be  hereafter  given,  so  as  to 
fix  the  result  with  sufficient  accuracy. 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  25 


1822. 

1823. 

100  lbs. 

,  of  corn  stalks, 

gave 

25 

25 

100    " 

of  spiked  oat  grass, 

50 

100    '^ 

of  red  top, 

46 

100    " 

01  Rhode  Island, 

40 

100    " 

of  couch  grass. 

48 

100    " 

of  marine  black  grass, 

38 

On  Sowing  Grass  Seeds.  A  diversity  of  opinion  exists 
relative  to  the  best  time  for  sowing  grass  seeds.  Some  pre- 
fer the  fall ;  but  the  majority  of  those  who  have  written  on 
the  subject  recommend  sowing  in  the  spring;  and  that  sea- 
son, so  far  as  our  acquaintance  extends,  is  most  generally 
chosen.  European  writers  direct,  \  ven  when  grass  seed  is 
sown  on  the  same  ground  with  winter  grain,  to  sow  the 
grass  seed  in  the  spring,  and  harroiv  it  in.  They  say  that 
the  harrowing  wi'l  on  the  whole  be  of  service  to  the  grain, 
thou_,h  a  few  of  the  plants  will  be  torn  up  by  the  process. 
The  Hon.  Richard  Peters  likewise  directed  to  '  harrow  your 
winter  grain  in  the  spring,  in  the  direction  of  the  seed  fur- 
rows, or  drills,  and  be  nof  afraid  of  disturbing  a  feAV  plants ; 
manifold  produce  will  remuner'^te  for  the  destroyed.' 

The  Farmer's  Assista7it  says,  '  Clover  may  be  sown  with 
barley,  oats,  or  spring  wheat,  when  that  article  is  raised ;  or 
it  may  be  sown  with  winter  vv'heat  in  the  fall,  if  the  land  be 
dry  and  warmly  exposed  ;  or  in  the  spring,  when  it  should 
be  lisfhtly  harrowed  in.  The  Domestic  Encyclopedia  as- 
serts that  '  experienced  farmers  generally  prefer  sowing 
clover  with  wheat  rather  than  with  barley  or  oats,  as  in  dry 
seasons  the  clover  frequently  overpowers  the  oats  or  barley, 
and  if  it  be  sown  late  in  order  to  obviate  this  evil,  it  often 
fails,  and  the  crop  is  lost  for  that  season.  Probably  the  di- 
versity of  opinion  respecting  the  proper  time  of  sowing  clover 
seed  may  arise  from  the  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  soil 
on  which  trials  have  been  made.  An  experienced  agricul- 
turist, (Edward  Duffield,  Esq.,  of  Philadelphia  county,)  as- 
sures Dr.  Mease  that  he  repeatedly  failed  in  obtaining  a  crop, 
when  he  sowed  his  clover  in  autumn  or  winter  ;  and  he  is 
uniformly  successful  when  he  sows  in  the  spring.  His  soil 
is  a  light  loam.' 

On  the  other  hand,  an  experienced  and  scientific  cultiva- 
tor, Avhose  suffjO-estions  on  this  subject  were  published  in  the 
New  England  Farmer,  vol.  vi.  p.  238,  dated  Weston,  and 
signed  J.  M.  G.,  says,  '  Dear  bought  experience  has  taught 
3 


26  THE    COMPLETE  FARMER 

me  the  inefficacy  of  sowing  grass  seed  in  spring  with  grain ; 
it  was  a  custom  imported  with  the  ancestors  of  the  country 
from  old  England,  where  the  cloudy  summers  and  moist 
climate  will  warrant  a  practice  Avhich,  under  our  clear  sky 
and  powerful  sun,  is  altogether  unsuitable.  I  must  add  that 
grass  sown  in  the  fall  imperiously  requires  to  be  rolled  in 
the  spring  as  soon  as  the  gTound  is  in  fit  order ;  otherwise 
the  small  plants,  slightly  rooted  yet,  and  heaved  up  by  the 
frost,  will  suffer  much,  perhaps  total  destruction  ;  and  truly, 
among  the  many  uses  to  which  the  roller  may  be  applied, 
none,  perhaps,  would  be  more  valuable  than  to  roll  all  grass 
lands  in  spring.  The  plants  suffer  from  the  wind  and  from 
the  heat,  and  this  being  the  case  more  or  less  every  spring, 
it  must  necessarily  bring  on  a  permature  decay,  which  the 
yearly  use  of  the  roller  at  that  season  might  prevent.' 

We  cannot  reconcile  these  authorities ;  but  it  is  probable 
that  both  in  fall  and  spring  sowing  of  grass  seeds  there  may 
be  successful  and  unfavourable  results,  according  to  circum- 
stances of  soil,  season,  &lq,.  Fall  sown  grass  seeds  are 
liable  to  be  winter-killed,  or  destroyed  by  frost ;  spring  so\vn 
grass  seeds  may  perish  by  drought  and  heat.  But,  when- 
ever sown,  there  will  be  less  danger  either  from  frost  or 
drought,  if  the  seed  is  well  covered  with  a  harrow,  and  the 
ground  pressed  on  it  with  a  roller. 

Young's  Farmer's  Calendar,  under  the  date  of  August, 
says,  '  This  is  the  best  season  of  the  whole  j^ear  for  laying 
down  land  to  grass ;  and  no  other  is  admissible  for  it  on 
strong,  wet,  or  heavy  soils.  Spring  sowings  with  grain  may 
succeed,  and  do  often,  but  that  they  are  hazardous  I  know 
from  forty  years'  experience.' 

There  is  likewise  a  great  difference  of  opinion  as  respects 
the  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown  when  land  is  laid  down  to 
grass.  Sir  John  Sinclair  says,  '  It  is  a  great  error,  in  laying 
land  down  to  grass,  to  sow  an  insufficient  quantity  of  seeds. 
In  general,  twelve  or  fourteen  pounds  of  clover  is  the  usual 
average  allowance.  But  that  quantity,  it  is  contended,  ought 
greatly  to  be  increased,  and  in  many  cases  doubled.'  The 
Farmer's  Assistant  tells  us  that  '  the  quantity  of  red  clover 
seed  to  be  sown  on  the  acre  is  about  fourteen  pounds,  and 
none  but  clean  seed  ought  to  be  sown.' 

The  '  jMemoirs  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  of  the  State 
of  New  York,'  vol.  ii.  p.  30,  in  giving  an  account  of  the 
methods  of  culture  adopted  by  farmers  in  Rensselaer  coun- 
ty, state  that   '  Farmers  differ  in  opinion  in  regard  to  the 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  27 

most  suitable  quantity  of  seed.  S.  Germond,  H.  Worthing- 
to"-,  C.  Porter,  C.  R.  Golden,  and  some  others,  say  that  eight 
quarts  of  the  mixture  of  clover  and  timothy  seed  should  be 
sown  on  every  acre.  And  colonel  J.  Carpenter  sows  six- 
teen quarts  on  an  acre.  He  says  when  the  grass  and  clover 
grow  very  thick,  it  will  be  more  tender  feed,  and  more  fine 
liay,  and  that  it  will  not  run  out  so  soon.  But  J.  Phillips, 
G.  Eddy,  and  many  others,  consider  four  quarts  as  suffi- 
cient. 

'  All  agree  that  the  proportions  of  the  mixture  of  the 
seeds  should  be  governed  by  the  nature  of  the  soil  :  that 
in  a  sandy  soil  three-fourths  of  the  seed  should  be  clover  ; 
in  clay  loam  it  should  be  equal  parts ;  in  clay  soil  but  one- 
fourth  clover  seed. 

'  There  should  be  at  least  a  bushel  of  plaster  sown  on 
every  acre  of  clover  and  grass  land  of  a  sandy,  gravellJ^  or 
loamy  soil.  Also  on  all  upland  natural  meadows.  Two 
bushels  per  acre  are  much  better  than  one  on  sandy  or  gra- 
velly soil.' 

Payscn  Williams,  Esq.,  of  Fitchburg,  Massachusetts,  who 
received  a  premium  from  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  so- 
ciety for  the  greatest  quantity  of  spring  wheat,  raised  by 
hhji  in  the  summer  of  1822,  in  giving  a  description  of  the 
mode  of  culture  by  him  adopted,  says,  '  The  quantity  of  grass 
seed  used  by  me  is  never  less  than  twelve  pounds  of  clover 
and  one  peck  of  herd's  grass  (timothy)  to  the  acre.  Flere, 
permit  me  to  observe,  that  innumerable  are  the  instances  in 
this  country  where  the  farmer  fails  in  his  grass  crops  by  not 
allowing  seed  enough ;  and,  what  is  worse,  the  little  he  does 
give  with  a  sparing  hand  is  suffered  to  take  its  chance  un- 
der that  pest  of  agriculture  called  the  bush  harrow,  which 
not  only  drags  stones  and  other  loose  matters  into  heaps, 
but  leaves  the  soil  dead  and  heavy,  and  does  not  cover  the 
seed  deep  enough  to  strive  with  our  July  drought  efTectu- 
ally.' 

We  have,  however,  been  verbally  assured  by  very  cor- 
rect and  scientific  agriculturists,  that  six  or  seven  pounds  of 
clover  seed,  lukere  the  ground  is  highly  manured,  is  amply 
sufficient,  and  that  by  exceeding  that  quantity  the  plants  so 
shade  and  stifle  each  other  that  there  is  little  substance  in 
the  hay  made  from  them.  No  doubt  much  depends  on  the 
quality  and  richness  of  the  soil.  The  poorer  the  soil  the 
greater  the  quantity  of  grass  seed.  Clover  seed  of  a  bright 
yellow,  with  a  good  quantity  of  the  purple  and  brown  color- 


2S  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

ed  seed  among  it,   (which   shows  the   maturity  of  the  seed,) 
should  be  preferred. 


GRAIN.  Grain,  strictly  speaking,  signifies  seeds,  grow- 
ing in  spikes  or  ears,  and  includes  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats, 
&c.  Of  the  culture  of  these  we  shall  treat  under  those 
heads,  respectively.  We  shall  here  give  some  directions 
for  improving  grain  of  any  sort  which  has  become  musty,  or 
sour. 

'  The  wheat  [or  other  grain]  must  be  put  into  any  con- 
venient vessel,  capable  of  containing  at  least  three  times  the 
quantity,  and  the  vessel  must  be  subsequently  filled  with 
boiling  water  ;  the  grain  should  then  be  occasionally  stirred, 
and  the  hollow  and  decayed  grains  (Avhich  will  float)  may 
be  removed  ;  when  the  water  has  become  cold,  or,  in  general, 
when  about  half  an  hour  has  elapsed,  it  is  to  be  drawn  oflf. 
It  wnll  be  proper  then  to  rinse  the  corn  [grain]  with  cold 
water,  in  order  to  lemove  any  portion  of  the  water  which 
had  taken  up  the  must ;  after  which,  the  corn  being  com- 
pletely drained,  it  is,  without  loss  of  time,  to  be  thinly  spread 
on  the  floor  of  a  kiln,  and  thoroughly  dried,  care  Deing 
taken  to  stir  and  to  turn  it  frequently  during  this  part  of  the 
process.' — Code  of  Agriculture. 

Indian  Corn.  Indian  corn,  or  maize,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  is  a  very  important  crop.  The  celebrated  English 
agriculturist,  Arthur  Young,  in  speaking  of  the  agriculture 
of  France,  observed,  '  The  line  of  maize  [corn]  may  be 
said  to  be  the  division  between  the  good  husbandry  of  the 
south  and  the  bad  husbandry  of  the  north  of  the  kingdom  ; 
till  you  meet  with  maize,  very  rich  soils  are  fallowed,  but 
never  after.  Perhaps  it  is  the  most  important  plant  that  can 
be  introduced  into  the  agriculture  of  any  country,  where  cli- 
mate will  suit  it.  The  only  good  husbandry  in  the  king- 
dom (some  small  rich  districts  excepted)  arises  from  the 
possession  and  management  of  this  plant.  For  the  in- 
habitants of  a  country  to  live  upon  xh^X^ plmit ,  which  is  the 
preparation  for  wheat,  and  at  the  same  time  keep  their  cattle 
fat  upon  the  leaves  of  it,  is  to  possess  a  treasure  for  which 
they  are  indebted  to  their  climate.'  The  perfect  tillage 
and  plentiful  manuring  requisite  for  Indian  corn  make  it  an 
excellent  substitute  for  a  summer  fallow  ;  it  is  a  crop  not 
liable  to  be  injured  by  too  much  or  too  coarse  manure  ;  it 
not  only  enables,  but,   as  it  were,  forces  the  farmer  in  the 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  29 

course  of  its  culture  to  subdue  his  land  and  exterminate 
weeds. 

Soil.  A  light  loamy  soil  is  best  for  this  crop,  and  even 
if  sand  greatly  predominates  it  will  produce  good  corn  with 
the  help  of  manure.  Corn  v/ill  not  flourish  on  lands  in 
which  clay  is  the  chief  ingredient,  and  which  are  therefore 
stifl'  and  wet. 

Preparation.  *  The  best  preparation  for  a  corn  crop  is 
a  clover  or  other  grass  lay,  well  covered  with  a  long  manure, 
recently  t.pread,  neatly  ploughed,  and  harrowed  lengthwise 
of  the  farrow.  A  roller  may  precede  the  harrow  with  ad- 
vantage. The  time  of  performing  these  operations  depends 
on  the  texture  of  the  soil  and  the  quality  of  the  sod.  If 
the  first  is  inclining  to  clay,  or  the  latter  tough,  or  of  long 
continuance,  the  ploughing  may  be  performed  the  preceding 
autumn  ;  but  where  sand  or  gravel  greatly  preponderate, 
or  the  sod  is  light  and  tender,  it  is  best  performed  in  the 
spring,  and  as  near  to  planting  as  is  convenient.  The  har- 
row, at  least,  should  immediately  precede  planting.  All 
seeds  do  best  when  put  into  the  fresh  stirred  mould.  Stiff 
lands  are  ameliorated  and  broken  down  by  fall  ploughing ; 
but  light  lands  are  rather  prejudiced  by  it.  When  corn  is 
preceded  by  a  tilled  crop,  the  ground  should  be  furrowed,  and 
the  seed  deposited  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrows.  Where 
there  is  a  sod,  the  rows  should  be  superficially  marked,  and 
the  bced  planted  on  the  surface.  Where  the  field  is  flat,  or 
the  sub-soil  retentive  of  moisture,  the  land  should  be  laid  in 
ridges,  that  the  excess  of  water  which  falls  may  pass  off  in 
the  furrows. 

'  The  time  of  planting  must  vary  in  different  districts,  and 
in  diiferent  seasons.  The  ground  should  be  sufficiently 
warmed  by  sternal  heat,  to  cause  a  speedy  germination. 
Natural  vegetation  affords  the  best  guide.  My  rule  lias 
been  to  plant  when  the  apple  is  bursting  its  blossom  buds, 
which  has  generally  been  between  the  12th  and  20ui  of 
May. 

'  Preparation  of  the  seed.  The  enemies  to  be  combated 
are  the  wire- worm,  brown  grub,  birds,  and  squirrels.  Of 
these  the  first  and  two  last  prey  upon  the  kernels,  and 
against  these  tar  offers  a  complete  protection.  I  soak  my 
seed  twelve  to  twenty  hours  in  hot  water,  in  which  is  dis- 
solved a  few  ounces  of  crude  saltpetre,  and  then  add  (say 
to  eig:,t  qu'^i'ts  of  seed)  half  a  pint  of  tar,  previously  warmed, 
and  diluted  wi+h  a  quart  of  warm  water.  The  mass  is  well 
3# 


30  THE    COBIPLETE    FARMER 

Stirred,  the  corn  taken  out,  and  as  much  plaster  added  as 
will  adhere  to  the  grain.  This  impregnates  and  partially 
coats  the  seed  v/ith  tar.  The  experience  of  years  will  war- 
rant me  in  confidently  recommending  this  as  a  protection  for 
the  seed. 

'  The  manner  of  planting  is  ordinarily  in  hills  from  two 
and  a  half  to  six  feet  apr.rt,  according  to  the  varietur  of 
corn,  the  strength  of  the  soil,  and  the  fancy  of  the  cultiva- 
tor. The  usual  distance  in  my  neighborhood  is  three  feet. 
Some^  however,  plant  in  drills  of  one,  two,  or  three  rows,  by 
which  a  greater  crop  is  unquestionably  obtained,  though  the 
expense  of  culture  is  somewhat  increased.  The  quantity 
of  seed  should  be  double,  and  may  be  auadruple^  what  is 
required  to  stand.  It  is  well  known  that  a  great  difference 
is  manifest  in  the  appearance  of  the  plants.  Som.e  appear 
feeble  and  sickly,  which  the  best  nursing  will  not  render  pro- 
ductive. The  expense  of  seed,  and  the  labor  of  pulling  up 
all  but  three  or  four  of  the  strongest  plants  in  a  hill,  it  is  be- 
lieved will  be  amply  remunerated  by  the  increased  product. 
If  the  seed  is  covered  c^s  it  should  be  with  mould  only,  and 
not  too  deep,  we  may  at  least  calculate  upon  every  hill  or 
drill  having  its  requisite  number  of  plants. 

'  Tke  after  culture  consists  in  keeping  the  soil  loose  and 
free  from  weeds,  which  is  ordinarily  accomplished  by  two 
dressings,  and  in  thinning  the  plants,  which  latter  may  be 
done  the  first  hoeing,  or  partially  omitted  till  the  last.  The 
practice  of  ploughing  among  corn  and  of  making  large  hills 
is  justly  getting  into  disrepute  ;  for  the  plough  bruises  and 
cuts  the  roots  of  the  plants,  turns  up  the  sod  and  manure  to 
waste,  and  renders  the  crop  more  liable  to  suffer  by  drought. 
The  first  dressing  should  be  performed  as  soon  as  the  size 
of  plants  will  permit,  and  the  best  implement  to  precede 
the  hoe  is  the  corn  harrow,  adapted  to  the  width  of  the  rows, 
which  every  farmer  can  make.  This  Avill  destroy  most  of 
the  weeds,  and  pulverize  the  soil.  The  second  hoeing 
should  be  performed  before  or  as  soon  as  the  tassels  appear, 
and  may  be  preceded  by  the  corn  harrow,  a  shallow  fur- 
row with  the  plough,  or,  what  is  better  than  either,  by  the 
cultivator.     A   slight    earthing   is   beneficial,    provided  the 


*  Messrs.  Pratts,  of  Madison  county,  New  York,  obtained  the  prodi- 
gious crop  of  o.ie  hundred  and  seventy  bushels  per  acre,  and  used  seven 
bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre,  the  plants  being  subsequently  reduced  to  the 
requisite  number. 


AND    RURAL   ECONOMIST.  31 

earth  is  scraped  from  the  surface,  and  the  sod  and  manure 
not  exposed.  It  will  be  found  beneficial  to  run  the  harrow 
or  cultivator  a  third  and  even  a  fourth  time  between  the 
rows,  to  destroy  weeds  and  loosen  the  surface,  particularly 
if  the  season  is  dry. 

'  Li  harvesting  the  crop,  one  of  three  modes  is  adopted, 
viz.  :  1.  The  corn  is  cut  at  the  surfEice  of  the  ground  when 
the  grain  has  become  glazed  or  hard  upon  the  outside,  put 
it  immediately  into  stooks,  and  when  sufficiently  dried  the 
corn  and  stalks  are  separated,  and  both  secured.  2.  The 
tops  are  taken  off  Avhen  the  corn  has  become  glazetl,  and 
the  grain  permitted  to  remain  till  October  or  November  upon 
the  but^s.  Or,  3.  Both  corn  and  stalks  are  left  standing 
till  the  grain  has  fully  ripened  and  the  latter  become  dry, 
when  both  are  secured.  There  are  other  modes,  such  as 
leaving  the  butts  or  entire  stalks  in  the  field  after  the  grain 
is  gathered;  but  these  are  so  wasteful  and  slovenly  as  not  to 
merit  consideration.  The  stalks,  blades,  aixd  tops  of  corn- 
if  well  secured,  are  an  excellent  fodder  for  neat  cattle.  If 
cut,  or  cut  and  steamed,  so  that  they  can  be  readily  masti- 
cated, they  are  superior  to  hay.  Besides,  their  fertilizing 
properties  as  a  manure  are  greatly  augmented  by  being  fed 
out  in  the  cattle  yard  m  d  imbibing  the  urine  and  liquids 
which  always  there  abound,  and  which  are  lost  to  the  farm 
in  ordinary  yards,  without  abundance  of  dry  litter  to  take 
them  up.  By  the  first  of  these  methods,  the  crop  may  be 
secured  before  the  autumnal  rains  ;  the  vabie  of  the  fodder 
is  increased,  and  the  ground  is  cleared  in  time  for  a  winter 
crop  of  wheat  or  rye.  The  second  mode  impairs  the  value 
of  the  forage,  requires  more  labor,  and  does  not  increase  the 
quantity  or  improve  the  quality  of  the  grain.  The  third 
mode  requires  the  same  labor  as  the  first,  may  improve  the 
quality  of  the  grain,  but  must  inevitably  deteriorate  the 
quality  of  the  fodder.  The  corn  cannot  be  husked  too 
promptly  after  it  is  gathered  from  the  field.  If  permitted  to 
heat  the  value  of  the  grain  is  materially  impaired.' 

To  the  above  directions  (which  are  quoted  from  an  excel- 
lent article  written  by  J.  Buel,  Esq.,  of  Albany,  originally 
published  in  The  Genessee  Farmer,  and  republished  in  the 
Neiv  England  Farmer,  vol.  xi.  p.  305)  we  shall  add  some 
further  particulars  from  various  sources. 

A  writer  for  GoodseWs  Genessee  Farmer,  with  the  signa- 
ture W.   P.  W.,  recommends  wetting  seed  corn  with  soft 


32  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

soap,  and  rolling  it  in  plaster,  and  gives  the  details  of  an  ex- 
periment which  tested  the  utility  of  this  practice. 

William  Clark,  Jim,,  of  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  pub- 
lished an  article  on  the  culture  of  corn  in  the  New  England 
Farmer,  vol.  xi.  p.  337,  giving  in  detail  a  number  of  experi- 
ments, which  favored  the  opinion  that  an  equal  distance  each 
Vvay  is  the  best  method  of  planting  corn;  and  that  on  soil 
'  similar  to  Avhat  I  have  described,  [a  sandy  loam  somewhat 
exhausted  by  neglect  and  severe  cropping,  manured  Avith 
about  twenty  cart  loads  of  compost  to  the  acre]  about  nine 
square  feet  of  surface  is  sufficient  ground  for  one  hill.'  That 
is,  the  hills  were  three  feet  apart  each  way  from  centre  to 
centre;  but  he  does  not  state  how  many  kernels  were  plant- 
ed, nor  how  many  plants  were  suffered  t3  remain  in  a  hill. 

It  has  often  been  stated  that  great  advantage  was  derived 
from  selecting  seed  corn  from  stalks  which  had  borne  two 
or  more  ears.  The  Hampshire  Gazette,  published  at  North- 
ampton, Massachusetts,  mentions  a  farmer  who  'has  selected 
his  seed  corn  in  this  way  for  three  years  past,  and  the  result  has 
exceeded  his  expectation.  He  states  that  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  find  in  his  corn-field  this  season,  [1831]  stalks  with  three, 
four,  five,  and  sometimes  six  ears,  and  three  of  them  fair,  full 
grown,  and  fit  for  seed,  and  that  t-yo  in  hills  containing  four 
or  five  stalks.'  He  says,  *  I  think  my  crop  has  been  increas- 
ed several  bushels  this  year  by  the  experiment.  I  would 
suggest  a  mode  of  selecting  seed  to  those  who  do  not  cut  up 
the  corn  at  the  roots.  When  they  are  picking  corn,  and 
find  a  sA.lk  with  two  or  more  ears,  let  them  tie  the  husks 
together,  and  the  ears  will  be  easily  known  at  husking.' 

A  solution  of  copperas  in  water  has  been  recommended 
as  forming  a  good  preparation  for  seed  corn.  Mr.  J.  Ells- 
worth, of  Ketch  Mills,  Connecticut,  in  a  communication 
published  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  x.  p.  331,  stated 
as  follows : 

*  Last  year  I  soaked  our  seed  corn  in  very  strong  copperas 
water,  as  near  as  I  can  recollect  from  twenty-four  to  thirty- 
six  hours ;  every  kernel  was  made  as  black  as  charcoal ;  the 
man  who  planted  the  corn  called  me  a  fool,  and  said  it 
would  never  vegetate.  But  every  hill  planted  came  up  well, 
and  during  its  growth  excited  the  remarks  of  all  who  saw  it, 
as  being  the  most  even  field  of  corn  they  ever  saw.  Not 
one  hill  in  the  whole  seven  acres  was  injured  by  worms  j 
o.nd  we  had  often  in  previous  years  been  compelled  to  re- 
plant several  times,  when  it  had  been  cut  doAvn  by  the  worms. 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  33 

Wc  had  over  sixty  bushels  to  the  acre.'  Copperas  water 
will  not  preserve  corn  against  the  cut-ivorm,  which  eats  off 
the  young  plants  at  or  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
It  has  been  often  asserted,  (but  we  have  not  known  it  tested 
by  experiment,)  that  the  kernels  of  corn  from  the  but-ends 
of  the  ears  are  better  for  seed  than  those  fiom  any  other  p  iit 
of  the  ear.  It  is  said  that  the  nearer  the  seed  is  taken  from 
the  largest  end,  the  larger  the  product.  Others  recommend 
to  reject  some  part  of  both  ends,  and  plant  only  seeds  taken 
from  the  middle.  Farther  experiments  are  desirable  to  as- 
certain these  points. 

'  The  following  table,'  says  judge  Buel,  '  exhibits  the  dif- 
ference in  product  of  various  methods  of  planting,  and  serves 
also  to  explain  the  manner  in  which  large  crops  of  this  grain 
have  been  obtained.  I  have  assumed  in  the  estimate  that 
each  stock  produces  one  ear  of  corn,  and  that  the  ears  ave- 
rage one  gill  of  shelled  grain.  This  is  estimating  the  product 
low;  for  while  I  am  penning  this  (October)  I  find  that  my 
largest  ears  give  two  gills,  and  one  hundred  fair  ears  half  a 
bushel  of  shewed  corn.  The  calculation  is  also  predicated  on 
the  supposition  that  there  is  no  deficie^^y  in  the  number  of 
stocks,  a  contingency  pretty  sure  on  my  method  of  planting.^ 

hills.         bush.     qts. 

1.  An  acre  in  hills  four  feet  apart  each 

way  will  produce 

2.  The  same,  three  feet  by  three 

3.  The  same,  two  by  two  and  a  half  feet 

4.  The   same,    in    drills  at   three    feet, 

plants  six  inches  apart  in  the  drills 

5.  The  same  in  do.,  two  rows  in  a  diill, 

six  inches  apart,  and  the  plants 
nine  inches,  and  three  feet  nine 
inches  from  centre  of  drills,  thus  : 


2722 

42 

16 

4840 

75 

20 

5808 

93 

28 

stalks. 

29,040 

113 

14 

.       .       .       .  30,970       120      31 

6.  The  same  in  do.,  three  rows  in  a  drill, 
as  above,  three  feet  from  centres 
of  drills,  thus  : 

43,560       170        5 

'  The  fifth  mode  I  have  tried.     The  ground  was  highly 

*  Planting  an  extra  number  of  plants  and  thinning  them  at  the  f^rst 
or  second  hoeing. 


34  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

manured,  the  crop  twice  cleaned,  and  the  entire  acre  o-ather- 
ed  and  weighed  accurately  the  same  day.  The  product  in 
ears  was  one  hrndred  and  three  bushels,  each  eighty-four 
pounds  net,  and  sixty-five  pounds  over.  The  last  bushel  was 
shelled  and  measured,  Mhich  showed  a  product  on  the  acre 
of  one  hundred  and  eighteen  bushels  ten  quarts.  I  gathered 
at  the  rate  of  more  than  one  hundred  bushels  to  the  acre 
from  four  rods  planted  in  the  third  method,  last  summer,  the 
result  ascertained  in  the  most  accurate  manner.  Corn 
shrinks  about  twenty  per  cent,  after  it  is  cribbed.  The  sixth 
mode  is  the  one  by  which  the  Messrs.  Pratts,  of  Madison 
county,  obtained  the  prodigious  crop  of  one  hundred  and 
sevv^nty  bushels  per  acre.  These  gentlemen,  I  am  told,  are 
of  opinion,  that  the  product  cf  an  acre  may  be  increased  to 
two  hundred  bushelr.' 

We  believe  that  nearly  all  the  large  and  premium  crops 
which  have  been  noted  in  the  annals  of  agi'iculture,  were 
procured  by  planting  the  corn  in  drills,  either  single,  double, 
or  treble.  There  has,  however,  been  a  difference  in  opinion 
relative  to  planting  corn  in  ridges  or  on  a  flat  surface.  This, 
we  think,  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  soil.  A  loamy  soil, 
or  such  as  is  proper  for  corn,  ought,  in  our  climate,  to  be  cul- 
tivated in  a  flat  way,  that  it  may  the  better  retain  moisture. 
Dr.  Black,  of  Delaware,  ad  vises  to  plant  corn  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  rows  may  run  directly  7i07-th  and  south.  General 
Hull,  of  Newton,  Massachusetts,  in  cultivating  a  premium 
crop  of  corn,  '  drew  furrows  north  and  south  three  and  a  half 
feet  apart.  No  ridges  were  formed.  Hills  were  then  made 
with  the  hoe  in  those  furrows  two  feet  apart,  not  fiat,  but  de- 
sceiiding  to  the  south,  luith  a  small  bank  on  the  north  side  of 
each  hill,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  young  plants  a  fairer 
exposure  to  the  sun. 

When  corn  is  planted  on  green  sward  land,  the  holes  for 
the  hills  or  di-ills  should  be  made  quite  through  the  furrows, 
and  dung  put  into  the  holes.  If  this  caution  be  not  observed 
the  crop  will  be  uneven,  as  the  roots  in  somj  places,  where 
the  furrows  are  thickest,  will  have  but  little  benefit  from  the 
rotting  of  the  sward.  But  if  the  holes  are  made  through, 
the  roots  Avill  be  fed  with  both  fixed  and  putrid  air,  supplied 
by  the  fermentation  in  the  grass  roots  of  the  turf."^ 

Some  entertain  an  idea,  that  it  is  injurious  to  stir  the  soil 
when  it  is  dry  and  the  plants  are  suflering  for  want  of  rain. 
The  error  of  this  supposition  is  well  exposed  in  an   article 

*  Deane's  N.  E.  Farmer. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  35 

written  by  the  Hon.  J.  Lowell,  heided,  '  Stirrmg  the  tarth  a 
relief  against  drought'  republished  from  the  Massachusetts 
Agricultural  Repository  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol. 
xi.  p.  92.     The  following  is  an  extract : 

'  In  this  extraordinary  [very  dry]  season,  I  had  a  small 
patch  of  early  potatoes,  planted  in  a  warm  and  sandy  soil, 
.  purposely  to  procure  an  earlj^  crop  ;  the  soil  was,  at  least, 
three-quarters  pure  sand,  mixed  with  some  food  for  plants 
among  the  sand.  The  severe  drought  threatened  a  total  loss 
of  the  crop.  The  potato  stalks  were  feeble,  drawn  up, 
scarcely  larger  than  goose  quills,  and  I  expected  every  day 
to  see  them  wither ;  all  hopei"  of  a  crop  were  abandoned.  I 
thought  that  they  were  the  fair  subjects  of  a  desperate  expe- 
riment. On  one  of  the  hottest  and  driest  days,  I  gavo  them 
a  thorough  ploughing,  passing  the  plough  four  times  through 
each  row ;  first  ploughing  two  furrows  from  the  hills,  as 
near  the  roots  as  possible  without  throwing  out  the  seed  po- 
tatoes, and  then  returning  the  loam  or  earth  instantly  back 
by  two  other  furrows.  No  rain  intervened  for  ten  days.  In 
three  days  after,  the  potatoes  changed  their  color,  they  start- 
ed afresh  as  if  they  had  received  the  benefit  of  ample  showers, 
while  not  a  drop  of  rain  had  fallen. 

'  The  dews,  which  were  abundant,  settled  upon  the  new 
turned  earth,  while  before  the  ploughing  no  moisture  had 
been  apparent. 

'  The  last  fact,  though  it  cannot  have  escaped  the  notice 
of  the  most  careless  cultivator,  has  not  been  as  yet  explained. 
We  can  easily  see  that  a  soil  rendered  porous  would  more 
readily  and  easily  convey  its  moisture  to  the  roots.  It  be- 
comes like  a  sponge,  and  is  readily  permeable,  or  rather 
readily  permits  the  moisture  to  pass  between  the  particles. 
But  it  is  not  yet  understood  A>hy  it  attracts  the  moisture. 
Perhaps,  however,  it  may  be  owing  to  its  presenting  a  much 
greater  surface  to  the  moist  air  of  the  night.  The  fact,  how- 
ever, which  is  what  most  concerns  us,  is  settled.  Perhaps 
some  of  the  experiments  of  our  distinguished  countryman  Dr. 
Wells,  a  physician  of  London,  who  rendered  himself  distin- 
gushed  by  his  remarks  on  dew,  may  tend  to  explain  this  fact, 
though  it  is  not  my  purpose  to  ex  m.ine  the  theory. 

'Every  man  who  f^els  an  interest  in  the  question  can 
satisfy  himself  at  once  by  stirring  a  small  piece  of  earth  in 
a  time  of  severe  drought,  and  if  he  does  not  find  it  in  the 
morning  more  filled  with  moisture  than  the  undisturbed 
ground  in  its  vicinity,  let  him  continue  an  unbeliever. 


36  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

'  But  there  is  another  mode,  and  it  is  one  which  I  have 
never  heard  suggested,  by  which  I  apprehend  the  stirring  of 
the  surface,  and  making  it  hght  and  poious,  is  beneficial  in 
great  droughts.  It  is  this  :  Hght  porous  bodies  are  bad  con- 
ductors of  heat :  perhaps  because  they  have  more  air  be- 
tween their  interstices.  The  facts  are  familiar  to  us.  Me- 
tallic bodies  acquire  an  intense  heat  under  the  rays  of  the 
sun ;  so  do  stones  in  proportion  to  their  density.  The  earth, 
when  very  compact,  will  become  exceedingly  hot,  but  garden 
loam,  which  is  very  porous,  remains  cool  at  noon  day  two 
inches  below  the  surface.  I  believe,  therefore,  that  mo^dng 
the  surface,  and  keeping  it  in  a  light  and  porous  state  ena- 
bles it  to  resist  the  heat  of  the  sun's  rays;  that  the  air  between 
the  particles  of  earth  communicates  the  heat  more  slowly 
than  the  particles  themselves  do  when  in  close  contact. 

'Such  is  my  theory,  but  I  am  an  enemy  to  theories.  I 
always  distrust  them ;  I  look  only  to  facts  ;  and  having  ob- 
served that  a  slight  covering  of  half  an  inch  of  sea  weed 
would  preserve  my  strawberries  from  drought,  which  can 
only  arise  from  its  lying  so  loose  on  the  surface,  I  have  been 
led  to  infer  that  the  undoubted  fact,  that  soil  in  a  loose  pul- 
verized state  resists  drought,  is  owing  to  the  same  cause,  to 
wit,  the  slowness  Avith  which  the  heat  of  the  solar  rays  is 
communicated  to  the  roots.  But,  be  the  theory  sound  or 
unsound,  I  am  persuaded  that  every  farmer  will  find  that  the 
free  use  of  his  plough  and  hoe,  in  times  of  severe  drought,  will 
be  of  more  \  alue  to  him  than  as  much  manure  as  that  labor 
would  purchase.  I  have  aL»vays  been  convinced  from  my 
experience  as  an  horticulturist,  that  the  great  secret  in  culti- 
vation consists  in  making  the  soil  porous.  In  raising  exctic 
plants  we  know  it  to  be  true,  and  our  flower-pots  are  always 
supplied  with  soil  the  most  porous  which  we  can  obtain. 
The  farmer  may  borrow  light  from  an  occupation  which  he 
looks  upon  with  disdain,  but  which  serves  to  elucidate  and 
explain  the  secrets  of  vegetation.' 

Corn  is  sometimes  profitably  planted  or  sown  for  fodder. 
In  an  Add-^ess  to  the  Essex  Agricultural  Society,  by  the  late 
colonel  Pickering,  we  find  the  following  remarks  : 

'  Every  farmer  knows  how  eagerly  cattle  devour  the  en- 
tire plant  of  Indian  corn  in  its  green  state ;  and  land  in  good 
condition  will  produce  heavy  crops  of  it.  Some  years  ago, 
just  when  the  ears  were  in  the  milk,  I  cut  close  to  the  ground 
the  plants  growing  on  a  measured  space,  equal  as  I  judged 
to  the  average  product  of  the  whole  piece ;  and  found  that, 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  37 

at  the  same  rate,  an  acre  would  yield  twelve  tons  of  green 
fodder  ;  probably  a  richer  and  more  nourishing  food  than  any 
other  known  to  the  husbandman.  And  this  quantity  was 
the  growth  of  less  than  four  months.'  ^  =^  =^  'It  has  ap- 
peared to  me  that  the  sort  called  sweet  corn,  yields  stalks 
of  richer  juice  than  the  common  yellow  corn.  It  is  also 
more  disposed  to  multiply  suckers,  an  additional  recommen- 
dation to  it,  when  planted  to  be  cut  in  a  green  state  for  horses 
and  cattle,  and  especially  for  milch  cows ;  and  the  time  of 
planting  may  be  so  regulated  as  to  furnish  supplies  of  food 
just  when  the  pastures  usually  fail.  I  am  inclined  to  doubt 
whether  any  other  green  food  will  afford  butter  of  equal  ex- 
cellence.' 

Colonel  Pickering  recommended  planting  northern  corn  in 
preference  to  southern  corn,  when  fodder  is  the  object.  He 
observed  that  '  the  green  stalks  of  our  northern  corn  are  in- 
comparably sweeter  than  those  of  the  southern  states,  at 
least  when  both  sorts  are  grown  in  the  north. 

Corn  intended  for  fodder  may  be  sowed  either  broad-cast 
or  in  drills.  The  former  is  the  least  trouble,  the  latter  will 
give  the  greatest  produce,  and  leave  the  soil  in  the  best  order. 

If  the  land  on  which  you  propose  to  raise  your  corn  is 
mowing  or  pasture,  fresh  ploughed  for  the  pu'^pose,  broad- 
cast sowing  will  be  best,  as  the  sod  after  being  turned  over 
should  not  be  disturbed,  and  there  will  not,  probably,  be 
much  to  apprehend  from  weeds.  If  you  sow  broad-cast, 
from  three  to  three  and  a  half  bushels  to  an  acre  are  recom- 
mended, though  some  say  that  a  larger  quantity  will  be  still 
better.  If  in  drills  you  will  run  light  furrows  about  three 
feet  p  sunder,  three  or  four  inches  deep,  and  drop  the  seed 
corn  in  the  furrows,  about  as  thick  as  peas  are  sown  for  field 
cultivation.  The  seed  may  be  covered  with  the  plough  ;  and 
a  harrow  drawn  lengthwise  of  the  furrows,  followed  by  a 
roller,  (if  you  have  one,)  or  perhaps  your  harrow  turned  bot- 
tom upwards,  for  want  of  a  roller,  will  complete  the  planting. 
If  you  mean  to  dry  it  for  winter  use,  it  will  be  advisable  to 
sow  early  in  the  season,  for  it  will  then  be  fit  to  cut  at  a 
time  when  it  can  be  most  easily  cured  for  preservation  in 
your  barn,  or  other  receptacle  for  fodder. 

The  following  remarks  on  the  culture  of  corn  are  from  the 
pen  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Colman,  of  Greenfield,  Massachusetts, 
one  of  our  best  practical  and  scientific  farmers. 

In  the  cultivation  of  this  crop,  it  is  in  the  first  place  im- 
portant to  secure  an  early  kind,  as  the  best  security  against 
4 


38  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

backward  springs  and  early  frosts.  A  field  of  corn  in  Lex- 
ington, planted  on  the  21st  of  June,  belonging  to  Mr.  Daniel 
Chandler,  yielded  an  ample  crop,  and  was  perfectly  ripened. 
The  seed  was  of  the  twelve  rowed  kind,  much  esteemed  there, 
and  easily  procured.  The  kernel  is  small,  but  it  yields  as 
much  to  the  acre,  and  weighs  more  to  the  bushel,  than  the 
eight  rowed  kind,  with  a  larger  kernel.  Now  a  kind  of  this 
description,  which  will  ripen  in  nine  or  ten  weeks,  in  so  un- 
propitious  a  season  as  the  last,  when  there  were  few  warm 
nights,  which  are  generally  considered  most  important  to  the 
forwarding  of  this  crop,  is  certainly  a  great  acquisition.  It 
will  be  well  to  remark  here,  that  it  is  not  only  important  to 
procure  an  early  kind,  but  it  will  require  particular  attention 
to  keep  it  so.  Plants,  like  animals,  have  a  constant  tendency 
to  become  accommodated  to  the  place  and  season  in  which 
they  grow.  Indian  corn  brought  from  the  north  to  the  south 
will  become  later  and  require  a  longer  season  for  its  ripening, 
unless  particular  care  is  taken  in  the  selection  of  the  earliest 
ripe  ears  for  planting;  which  is,  that  high  manuring  has  a 
tendency,  by  rendering  the  growth  of  a  plant  more  luxuriant 
and  succulent,  to  refard  its  ripening  and  to  lengthen  its 
season. 

We  are  satisfied  from  long  observation  and  experiment  that 
an  early  planting  of  corn  is  generally  and  strongly  to  be 
recommended.  The  last  season,  it  is  true,  formed  an  excep- 
tion to  this  rule ;  but  it  was  a  rare  case.  Now  a  kind  of 
corn  which  by  early  planting  and  consequently  early  ripen- 
ing gives  an  opportunity  of  laying  down  the  same  ground 
seasonably  with  winter  grain  and  clover ;  or  which,  where 
the  first  plantings  will  afford  us  the  prospect  of  a  full  crop, 
when  the  vacancies  are  not  supplied  or  the  planting  cannot 
take  place  until  after  the  middle  of  June,  certainly  is  a  great 
object  to  farmers. 

The  kind  of  land  best  suited  to  this  crop,  I  am  satisfied,  is 
green  sward,  completely  inverted,  rolled,  and  so  cultivated  as 
not  during  the  whole  season  to  disturb  or  break  the  sod 
which  has  been  turned  over.  This  is  a  point  of  great  impor- 
tance ;  for  the  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  matter  in  the 
ground,  Avhich  is  effectually  secured  in  this  way,  but  entirely 
lost  by  the  common  mode  of  cultivation,  will  greatly  con- 
tribute to  the  nutriment  and  vigor  of  the  plant,  supplying  in 
fact  an  amount  of  manure  greatly  beyond  what  any  con- 
jectures would  have  made  it,  had  not  an  exact  experiment 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  39 

determined  that  in  ordinary  cases  it  may  be  rated  over  twelve 
tons  of  vegetable  matter  to  the  acre. 

In  the  next  place  we  protest  against  the  practice  of  very 
deep  ploughing  for  this  crop,  and  that  of  burying  the  ma- 
nure deeply  under  the  sod.  The  depth  of  ploughing  may 
be  in  some  measure  regulated  by  the  nature  of  the  soil ;  but 
three  or  four  inches  in  sward  land  may  be  regarded  as  ample ; 
and  not  so  much  as  this,  where  this  would  carry  you  below 
the  vegetable  mould.  All  circumstances  considered,  I  am 
satisfied  that  it  is  most  eligible  to  spread  the  manure  upon 
the  surface,  ploughing  it  in  with  a  very  light  plough  and 
harrow ;  and  though  something  may  be  lost  in  this  way  by 
evaporation,  yet  not  so  much  as  burying  it  under  the  sod ; 
and  the  land  is  left  in  much  better  condition  for  the  next 
crops  where  the  manure  is  thus  spread,  than  where  it  \ 
placed  in  the  hill ;  nor  is  the  corn  so  like  to  suffer  from  the 
drought,  and  the  saving  is  considerable. 


NEAT  CATTLE.  Neat  cattle  form  a  very  important 
part  of  every  farmer'*  live  stock.  In  selecting  them,  two 
1  sings  are  very  material :  first,  the  health  and  soundness  of 
the  stock  from  which  they  are  purchased ;  and  secondly,  the 
quality  of  the  soil  on  the  produce  of  which  it  is  intended  to 
feed  them.  Stock  for  the  dairy  or  the  butcher  should  be 
selected  from  a  breed  of  which  you  know  or  can  ascertain 
every  particular  relative  to  their  general  health  and  sound- 
ness, and  the  manner  in  which  they  have  been  reared,  in- 
cluding their  food,  shelter,  &c.  i 

The  Farmer's  and  Grazier's  Complete  Guide,  by  B.  Law- 
rence, an  English  writer,  observes,  '  Much  has  been  \\Titten 
as  to  what  breeds  are  the  best ;  and  a  considerable  greater 
stress  has  been  laid  on  this  part  of  the  question  than  is  borne 
out  by  any  positive  result ;  there  are  good  and  bad  of  all 
kinds  ;  and  provided  you  select  sound  and  healthy  animals 
from  warranted  stock,  you  will,  if  you  treat  them  properly, 
have  little  to  care  for  and  less  to  fear. 

'  Always  purchase  cattle  that  have  been  fed  on  lands  of  a 
poorer  quality  than  your  own  ;  but  you  must  not  too  sud- 
denly put  them  to  the  richer  food,  or  they  will  be  liable  to 
several  dangerous  diseases.  It  rarely  happens,  however,  that 
cattle  purchased  from  rich  lands  thrive  well  on  poor  soils ; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  those   from  poorer  farms  do  well  on 


40  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

good  land.  The  choice  of  neat  cattle,  therefore,  for  the 
stocking  of  farms,  must,  in  a  great  degree,  be  regulated  by 
the  nature  and  quality  of  the  soil  intended  to  feed  them  on. 

'  It  is  also  essential  that  the  cattle  should  be  young,  as 
well  as  healthy  and  of  sound  constitution  ;  for  the  younger 
they  are,  the  more  likely  they  will  be  to  do  service.  Their 
age  may  easily  be  known  by  the  teeth  ;  like  sheep,  they 
have  no  fore  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw;  it  is  in  the  lower, 
therefore,  by  which  this  must  be  determined :  the  horns  also 
afford  some  guide  in  this  respect. 

'  The  eight  fore  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  are  shed,  and  re- 
placed by  others  which  continue  through  life :  the  two  mid- 
dle fare  teeth  fall  out  at  about  two  years  old,  and  are  suc- 
ceeded by  others  not  so  white.  At  three  years  old  they 
have  two  more  next  to  those  of  the  previous  year ;  and 
thus  by  the  two  succeeding  years  all  the  fore  teeth  are  re- 
newed ;  they  are  then  termed  full  mouthed,  and  are  five 
years  old.  At  the  sixth  year  the  row  is  even,  the  last  two 
being  completely  up.  Besides  these  they  have  ten  grinders 
in  each  jaw. 

'  At  the  age  of  three  years  the  horns  are  smooth  and 
even  ;  in  the  course  of  the  fourth  year,  a  wrinkle  or  circle 
forms  round  the  basis  of  the  horn  near  the  head  ;  this  is 
every  year  succeeded  by  another,  which  always  seems  to 
move  the  other  forward.  At  looking  therefore  at  the  horns 
of  neat  cattle,  if  the  first  circle  be  considered  as  three  years, 
it  will  be  an  easy  task  to  tell  the  age  of  the  beast  at  any 
subsequent  period.  An  implicit  reliance  cannot,  however, 
be  placed  on  these  marks,  particularly  in  purchasing  of 
strangers,  or  cow  jobbers,  such  persons  having  been  known 
to  file  down  some  of  the  animal's  teeth  and  alter  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  horns  so  as  to  giv^e  them  the  semblance  and 
marks  of  young  cattle  of  the  most  valuable  breeds,  and  pass 
them  off  as  such  to  strangers.' 

Coios  for  the  Dairy.  In  selecting  cows  for  the  dairy,  the 
following  indications  should  be  attended  to.  Wide  horns,  a 
thin  head  and  neck,  dew-lap  large,  full  breast,  broad  back, 
large  deep  belly ;  the  udder  capacious  but  not  too  fleshy ; 
the  milch  veins  prominent,  and  the  bag  tending  far  behind ; 
teats  long  and  lurge ;  buttocks  broad  and  fleshy  ;  tail  long, 
pliable,  and  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  carcass, 
and  the  joints  short.  The  Alderney  breed  gives  a  very  rich 
milk.  The  Durham  short  horns,  however,  exceed  them  as 
respects  quantity ;   and  we  have  the  testimony  of  the  Hon. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


41 


Levi  Lincoln,  late  governor  of  Massachusetts,  that  the  milk 
of  Denton's  progeny,  a  branch  of  that  race,  is  not  only  abun- 
dant, but  of  excellent  quality.^ 

Cows  should  be  milked  regularly  morning  and  evening, 
and  as  nearly  as  may  be  at  the  same  hours.  At  six  in  the 
morning  and  six  at  night  is  a  good  general  rule,  as  the  times 
of  milking  will  be  equi-distant  from  each  other.  But  if  they 
are  milked  three  times  a  day,  as  Dr.  Anderson  recommended, 
the  times  may  be  five,  one,  and  eight.  He  asserted  that  if 
cows  were  full  fed,  they  will  give  half  as  much  again  if 
milked  three  times  as  if  only  twice.  At  the  same  time,  it 
would  prevent  too  great  a  distension  of  their  bags,  to  which 
the  best  cow^s  are  liable. 

The  cow  which  is  desired  to  remain  in  perfection,  either 
for  milking  or  breeding,  should  not  be  exhausted  by  drawing 
her  milk  too  long  after  she  becomes  heavy  with  calf.  It  is 
paying  too  dear  for  a  present  supply  of  milk.  She  should 
be  suffered  to  go  dry  at  least  two  months  before  calving. 

The  expense  of  keeping  cows  of  a  poor  breed  is  as  great 
and  sometimes  greater  than  that  of  keeping  the  best.  If 
cows  are  poorly  kept  the  difference  of  breeds  will  scarcely  be 
discernible  by  the  product  of  their  milk.  Some  have  there- 
fore supposed  that  it  is  the  food  alone  which  makes  the  odds 
in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk.  This  supposition 
is  very  erroneous,  as  may  be  shown  by  feeding  two  cow^s  of 
a  similar  age,  size,  &c.  on  the  same  food,  the  one  of  a  good 
breed  for  milk  and  the  other  of  a  different  kind,  and  observ- 
ing the  difference  in  the  milk  product.  No  farmer,  unless 
he  is  very  rich,  can  afford  to  keep  poor  milch  cows.  He 
mig-ht  almost  as  well  keep  a  breed  of '  naked  sheep,'  such  as 
Swift  mentions  in  Gulliver's  Travels.  The  farmer  who  raises 
a  heifer  calf  that  is  from  a  poor  milker,  or  of  a  breed  of  lit- 
tle value,  is  as  foolish  as  he  would  be  if  in  clearing  land  he 
should  burn  on  the  ground  the  birch,  maple,  and  walnut,  and 
save  white  pine  and  hemlock  for  fire  wood.  And  yet  many 
sell  the  calves  of  the  best  milch  cows  to  the  butchers,  be- 
cause such  calves  are  fattest ! 

Those  cows  which  give  the  greatest  quantity  of  thin  milk 
are  most  profitable  for  suckling  calves,  for  rich  milk  is  said 
not  to  be  so  proper  food  for  calves  as  milk  which  is  less 
valuable  for  dairy  purposes.  Milk  which  contains  a  large 
proportion  of  cream  is  apt  to  clog  the  stomachs  of  calves ; 

*  See  N.  E.  Farmer,  vol.  iv.  p.  318. 
4# 


42  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

obstruction  puts  a  stop  to  their  thriving,  and  sometimes 
proves  fatah  For  this  reason  it  is  best  that  calves  should  be 
fed  with  the  milk  vi^hich  first  comes  from  the  cow,  which  is 
not  so  rich  as  that  which  is  last  drawn. 

Mr.  Russel  Woodward,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  New  York 
Board  of  Agriculture,  says,  '  I  have  found  that  young  cows, 
the  first  year  that  they  give  milk,  may  be  made  with  care- 
ful milking  and  good  keeping  to  give  milk  almost  any 
length  of  time  required.  But  if  they  are  left  to  dry  up 
early  in  the  fall,  they  will  be  sure  to  dry  up  of  their  milk 
each  succeeding  year,  if  they  have  a  calf  near  the  same  sea- 
son of  the  year  ;  and  nothing  but  extraordinary  keeping  will 
prevent  it,  and  that  but  for  a  short  time.  I  have  had  them 
dried  up  of  their  milk  in  August,  and  could  not  by  any 
means  make  them  give  milk  much  beyond  that  time  m  any 
succeeding  years. '^ 

A  writer  in  the  Bath  and  West  of  England  Society^s  Pa- 
pers, states  that  if  at  any  time  a  good  milch  cow  should  go 
dry  before  her  milk  is  gone,  get  a  young  calf  and  put  it  to 
her  in  order  to  preserve  her  milk  against  another  year  ;  for 
it  is  well  known,  if  a  cow  goes  dry  one  year,  nature  will 
lose  its  power  of  acting  in  future. 

Cows  should  be  treated  with  great  gentleness  and  soothed 
by  mild  usages,  especially  when  young  and  ticklish,  or  when 
the  paps  are  tender  ;  in  which  case  the  udder  ought  to  be  fo- 
mented with  warm  water  before  milking  and  touched  with 
great  gentleness,  otherwise  the  cow  will  be  in  great  danger 
of  contracting  bad  habits,  becoming  stubborn  and  unruly, 
and  retaining  her  milk  ever  after.  A  cow  never  gives  down 
her  milk  pleasantly  to  a  person  she  dreads  or  dislikes.  The 
udder  and  paps  should  be  washed  with  warm  water  before 
milking,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  none  of  the  water  be 
admitted  into  the  milking  pail. 

The  keeping  of  cows  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  them 
give  the  greatest  quantity  of  milk,  and  with  the  greatest 
clear  profit,  is  an  essential  point  of  economy.  Give  a  cow 
half  a  bushel  of  turnips,  carrots,  or  other  good  roots  per  day, 
during  the  six  winter  months,  besides  her  hay,  and  if  her 
summer  feed  be  such  as  it  should  be,  she  will  give  nearly 
double  the  quantity  of  milk  she  would  afford  if  only  kept 


*  I  have  two  cows  now  that  were  milked  the  first  year  they  had  calves 
till  near  the  time  of  their  calving  again,  and  have  continued  to  give  milk 
as  late  ever  since  if  we  will  milk  them,' 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  ^ 

during  the  winter  in  the  usual  manner ;  and  the  milk  will 
be  richer  and  of  better  quality. 

The  carrots  or  other  roots,  at  nineteen  cents  a  bushel, 
amount  to  about  eighteen  dollars;  the  addition  of  milk, 
allowing  it  to  be  only  three  quarts  a  day  for  three  hundred 
days,  at  three  cents  a  quart,  twenty-seven  dollars.  It  should 
be  remembered,  too,  that  when  cows  are  thus  fed  with  roots 
they  consume  less  hay,  and  are  less  liable  to  several  diseases, 
which  are  usually  the  effects  of  poor  keeping."^ 

The  keeping  of  cows  is  very  profitable.  Allowing  one  to 
give  only  six  quarts  a  day,  for  forty  weeks  in  each  year,  and 
this  is  not  a  large  allowance,  her  milk  at  two  cents  per  quart 
will  amount  to  upwards  of  thirty-three  dollars ;  which  is 
probably  sufficient  to  purchase  her  and  pay  for  a  year's 
keeping.^ 

'  A  farmer  some  years  since  kept  eighteen  cows  on  a  com- 
mon, and  was  often  obliged  to  buy  butter  for  his  family. 
The  common  was  inclosed,  and  the  same  person  supplied  his 
family  amply  with  milk  and  butter  from  the  produce  of  four 
cows  well  kept. 

'  Great  milkers  seldom  carry  much  flesh  on  their  bones, 
but  they  pay  as  they  go  and  never  retire  in  our  debt.  The 
difficulties  in  cow  keeping  are  these :  the  expense  of  their 
food  is  considerable,  more  especially  with  respect  to  any 
which  must  be  purchased,  and  if  the  produce  be  inconsidera- 
ble it  may  be  a  losing  concern.  You  may  be  feeding  a. 
sparing  milker  into  flesh,  and  if  you  stint  her  or  allow  her 
only  ordinary  food  you  get  neither  flesh  nor  milk.'t 

Amateurs  in  this  line  should  procure  the  largest  milkers, 
and  I  had  almost  said  give  them  gold,  could  they  eat  it.  In 
this  case  it  may  be  depended  on,  'milk  is  always  of  more  value 
than  the  best  cow-food  ;  and  a  cow,  the  natural  tendency  of 
which  is  to  breed  milk,  will  convert  all  nourishment,  however 
dry  and  substantial,  into  that  fluid;  in  fact  will  require  such 
solid  kind  of  nourishment  to  support  her  strength  and  induce 
her  to  take  the  bull.t 

Keep  no  more  cows  than  you  can  keep  well ;  one  cow  well 
fed  will  produce  as  much  milk  as  two  indifferently  treated, 
and  more  butter  ;  and  if  the  cow  be  Avintered  badly,  she  will 
rarely  recover,  during  the  succeeding  summer,  so  as  to  be- 
come profitable  to  the  feeder.  Cows  should  by  all  means  be 
housed   in  extreme  weather,  and  particularly  those   which 

*  Farmer's  Assistant.  f  Mowbray  on  Poultry,  &c. 


44  THE    COMPLETE    FARMEB, 

give  milk,  or  a  failure  in  the  quantity  of  milk  will  be  expe- 
rienced. Wherefore,  instead  of  keeping  twenty  cows  poorly 
fed  and  but  half  of  them  stabled,  sell  ten  and  give  the  re- 
maining ten  food  in  amount  equal  to  what  the  twenty  ori- 
ginally had ;  procure  constant  stabling  for  them,  and  you 
will  receive  quite  as  much  milk  and  butter  in  return  as  was 
derived  from  tiie  former  mode  of  treating  twenty.  Sweet 
potatoes,  carrots,  pumpkii.s,  and  ground  oats,  are  unques- 
tionably among  the  best  articles  for  food  for  milch  cattle ; 
and  they  occasion  the  milk  and  butter  to  assume  a  fine  flavor 
and  color,  as  well  as  increase  of  quantity."^ 

Wi7iter  food  for  Cows.  Mr.  Chabert,  the  director  of  the 
veterinary  schools  of  Alfort,  had  a  number  of  cows  which 
yielded  very  great  quantities  of  milk.  In  his  publications 
on  the  subject  he  observed  that  cows  fed  in  winter  on  dry 
substan<;es  give  less  milk  than  those  which  are  kept  on  a 
green  diet,  and  also  that  their  milk  loses  much  of  its  quality. 
He  ])ublished  the  following  receipt,  by  the  use  of  which  his 
cows  aftbrded  him  an  equal  quantity  and  quality  of  milk 
during  the  winter  as  during  the  summer.  Take  a  bushel  of 
potatoes,  break  them  while  raw,  place  them  in  a  barrel 
standing  up,  putting  in  successively  a  layer  of  potatoes  and 
a  layer  of  bran,  and  a  small  quantity  of  yeast  in  the  middle 
of  tne  mass,  which  is  to  be  left  thus  to  ferment  during  a 
whole  week,  and  when  the  vinous  taste  has  pervaded  the 
whole  mixture,  it  is  then  given  to  the  cows,  who  eat  it 
greedily. 

Pure  water  is  an  essential  article  for  cows.  Dr.  Anderson 
says  he  knew  a  man  who  acquired  great  wealth  by  attention 
to  things  of  this  nature,  and  one  of  his  principal  discoveries 
was  the  importance  of  having  a  continued  supply  of  the 
purest  water  which  could  be  obtained  for  his  cows,  and  he 
would  on  no  account  permit  a  single  animal  to  set  his  foot 
in  it,  nor  allow  it  to  be  tainted  even  by  the  breath  of  ani- 
mals. 

Parsnips  cause  cows  to  give  milk  in  abundance,  and  that 
of  the  best  quality. 

Working  Cows.  An  English  cultivator,  whose  observa- 
tions are  published  in  the  appendix  to  Plymley's  Survey  of 
Shropshire,  says,  '  Cows  are  fattened  easier  and  are  better 
laborers  than  oxen.  The  uses  of  cattle  are  to  work,  milk, 
and  fatten.     I  have  seen  barren  cows  work  as  well  as  oxen ; 

*  Trentcn  Emporium. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  45 

they  require  less  keep  and  icalk  faster.  When  first  I  com- 
menced farmer,  I  followed  the  example  of  my  predecessor  in 
feeding  chiefly  oxen ;  but  I  soon  found  that  cows  fattened 
much  faster,  and  on  less  meal,  and  for  some  years  past  I 
have  carefully  avoided  having  any  oxen  in  my  stalls.' 

Cows  which  are  shortly  expected  to  calve  ought  to  be 
lodged  at  night  in  some  convenient  place  under  cover  for  a 
week  or  two  before  calving,  as  it  might  be  the  means  of 
saving  the  life  of  the  calf,  and  perhaps  of  t.'.e  dam  likewise. 
The  dr  y  and  night  after  a  cow  has  calved  she  should  be  kept 
under  cover,  and  her  drink  should  be  lukewarm.  Let  her 
not  be  exposed  for  some  time  to  the  dampness  of  the  night. 

Cows  which  are  near  calving  ought  to  be  fed  with  better 
and  more  substantial  food  than  usual.  Grain  of  any  kind  is 
now  useful,  but  it  should  be  crushed,  bruised,  or  coarsely 
ground.  If  the  cleaning  of  a  cow  after  calving  be  delayed, 
it  may  be  promoted,  according  to  Deane's  New  England  Far- 
mer, by  giving  her  a  pail  of  warm  water  with  some  ashes 
in  it;  or,  according  to  the  Grazier's  (jiuide.,  the  only  thing 
to  be  given  is  toast  and  weak  wine,  or  good  cider  or  perry. 
If  wine  be  preferred,  mix  it  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water. 
This  toast  should  consist  of  four  pints  of  wine  and  water, 
and  about  a  pound  and  a  half  of  bread  toasted. 

Inflamed  teats  should  be  washed  with  two  drachms  of 
sugar  of  lead  in  a  quart  of  water.  Should  tumors  appear, 
apply  a  common  warm  mash  of  bran  with  a  little  lard. 

To  prevent  cows  from  sucking  their  own  milk,  it  is  said 
that  rubbing  the  teats  frequently  with  the  most  fetid  cheese 
that  can  be  procured  is  an  effectual  remedy. 

In  order  that  it  may  be  ascertained  what  is  the  proper 
time  for  cows  to  go  dry  previous  to  their  calving,  an  account 
should  be  kept  of  the  time  when  each  cow  is  put  to  bull,  so 
that  the  cow  may  be  dried  off  in  due  season.  The  following 
prescription  for  drying  off  cows  is  given  in  Monk^s  Agricul- 
tural Dictionary. 

Take  an  ounce  of  powdered  alum;  boil  it  in  two  quarts 
of  milk  till  it  turns  to  whey ;  then  take  a  large  handful  of 
sage,  and  boil  it  in  the  whey  till  you  reduce  it  to  one  quart ; 
rub  her  udder  with  a  little  of  it,  and  give  her  the  rest  by 
way  of  drink  ;  milk  her  clean  before  you  give  it  to  her  ; 
and  as  you  see  need  repeat  it.  Draw  a  little  milk  from  her 
every  second  or  third  day,  lest  her  udder  be  overcharged. 

Coiv-kouse  or  Stable.  The  floor  under  a  cow-house  should 
be  very  tight,  so  that  none  of  the   stale  may  be  lost,  which, 


46  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

when  mixed  with  other  substances,  is  of  great  value  as  ma- 
nure. The  most  healthy  stables  are  those  which  are  open 
to  the  east,  or  have  an  eastern  aspect.  It  is  a  common 
practice  to  build  them  too  close.  The  stable  should  never 
be  completely  closed  up,  however  cold  the  weather  may  be, 
although  it  is  desirable  that  strong  draughts  of  cold  or  damp 
air  should  be  guarded  against,  especially  in  winter.  It  may 
be  held  as  a  general  rule  that  stables  or  cow-houses  are  too 
close  when  on  entering  the  breath  is  affected,  or  any  smell 
of  urine  can  be  perceived. 

It  is  also  very  important  to  keep  cow-houses  or  cattle 
stables  clean  and  well  littered.  Dung  left  in  stables  soon 
renders  the  air  unwholesome,  and  is  the  cause  of  disorders. 
Cows  in  a  stable  should  be  allowed  a  square  space  of  at 
least  six  feet  each  way  for  each  cow.  Two  or  three  venti- 
lators near  the  ground  on  the  north  side  afford,  at  a  trifling 
expense,  an  excellent  way  of  renewing  or  sweetening  the  air 
in  stables  in  the  summer  time,  and  on  the  south  side  in  win- 
ter, without  occasioning  draughts  ;  and  these  may  be  shut 
when  necessary  by  means  of  straw,  or,  what  is  better,  a  slid- 
ing door. 

It  is  of  no  small  importance  that  the  floor  of  a  cow-house 
be  very  tight,  so  that  none  of  the  stale  be  lost,  which  is  of 
great  value  as  manure,  when  mixed  with  other  substances. 
A  farmer  might  as  well  lose  the  dung  as  the  urine  of  his 
beasts. 

'The  common  cattle  stalls  of  our  country  are  so  ill  con- 
trived, and  so  straitened  in  their  dimensions,  that  the  cat- 
tle are  constrained  to  lie  down  in  part  in  their  own  dung. 
This  dries  and  forms  a  thick  coat  on  their  hind  quarters, 
from  which  they  are  not  relieved  till  they  shed  their  hair  in 
the  spring.  They  are  thus  rendered  uncomfortable.  To  be 
uncomfortable  is  to  suffer  some  degree  of  pain;  and  no  one 
will  suppose  that  animals  in  pain  can  thrive,  or  preserve  their 
plight  with  the  same  food  equally  with  others  perfectly  at 
ease.  Even  hogs,  though  prone  to  wallow  in  the  mire  in 
warm  weather,  are  always  pleased  with  a  dry  bed,  and  thrive 
best  when  kept  clean.  "^ 

The  following,  from  the  Memoir's  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Agricultural  Society,  is  extracted  from  a  letter  from  R.  Smith, 
to  J.  H,  Powel,  and  will  be  of  use  in  directing  the  mostj 
economical  management  of  dairy  cattle. 

*  Colonel  Pickering. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOIMIST.  41"' 

Mv  barn  is  constructed  according  to  the  best  Pennsylva- 
nia models.  The  yard  is  to  the  south  of  it.  On  the  east 
and  west  sides  are  cow  stables,  containing  one  hundred  and 
ten  well  made  stalls,  ventilated  by  a  sufficient  number  of 
windows  and  double  doors.  At  the  tails  of  each  range  of 
cows  there  is  a  drain  made  of  strong  planks,  and  so  fixed  as 
to  receive  all  their  dung  and  urine.  These  several  drains 
have  a  svifficient  declivity  to  carry  all  the  fluid  matter  to  their 
southern  terminations,  where  they  intersect  similar  drains, 
which  convey  all  this  liquid  manure  into  a  cistern,  fifty  feet 
long.  This  cistern  is  so  placed  and  constructed  as  to  receive 
not  only  the  urine  of  the  stables,  but  also  the  liquid  matter 
of  the  farm-yard.  In  it  there  is  a  pump,  by  means  of  which 
its  contents  are  pumped  into  a  large  hogshead,  fixed  on  a 
pair  of  wheels  drawn  by  oxen.  To  the  end  cf  this  hogshead 
is  attached  a  box  pierced  with  holes,  into  which  this  liquid 
manure  floats  through  a  spigot  and  faucet,  and  is  then 
sprinklea  over  the  ground  as  the  oxen  move  forward. 

Food  J  or  fatting  Cattle,  keeping  Stock,  ^-c.  It  has  been 
often  said,  and  w^e  believe  correctly,  that  it  is  not  profitable, 
generally  speaking,  to  fatten  cattle  on  any  kind  of  grain. 
Lawrence  on  Neat  Cattle  asserts  that  '  corn  [by  which  is 
meant  oats,  barley,  rye,  peas,  beans,  wheat,  &c.]  cannot  be 
used  in  the  fattening  of  bullocks  and  sheep,  except  in  seasons 
of  superabundant  plenty.  Even  Indian  corn  is  often  too 
costly  food  to  be  used  solely,  or  principally,  for  the  profitable 
fattening  of  cattle ;  and  grass,  hay,  and  roots  are  the  materi- 
als which  true  economy  requires."^  It  is,  however,  asserted, 
that  beef  fattened  on  oil  cake,  raw  potatoes,  turnips,  &c., 
will  not  be  so  firm,  nor  of  so  good  a  quality,  other  things  be- 
ing equal,  as  that  which  is  fattened  on  Indian  corn.  If  that 
be  true,  it  might  be  well  to  commence  feeding  with  turnips, 
potatoes,  (fee,  and  give  the  animals  richer  food  as  they  in- 
crease in  fatness. 

An  able  writer  says,  '  With  respect  to  feeding,  the  first  rule 
is,  little  at  a  time,  and  often ;  because  experience  has  shown 
that  animals  that  eat  much  in  a  short  time  do  not  fatten  so 
well  as  those  which  eat  less  but  more  frequently.  The  se- 
cond rule  is  to  begin  the  course  with  cabbage  and  turnips, 
then  to  employ  carrots  and  potatoes,  and  lastly  Indian,  oat, 
or  barley  meal.  These  aliments  ought  to  be  varied  several 
times  a  day,  and  oftener  if  convenient ;  and  instead  of  always 

*  See  a  communication  for  the  N.  E.  Farmer,  vol.  i.  p.  234. 


48  THE    COMPLETE    FAKMER 

reducing  them  to  a  meal,  there  is  advantage  in  sometimes 
boiling  them.     A  little  salt  given  daily  is  very  useful.' 

It  would  be  advancageons  to  the  community  of  farmers  if 
sometning  like  the  following  experiments  were  made,  and 
their  results  published.  Let  a  number  of  cattle  of  similar  or 
the  same  breed,  age,  propensity  to  fatten,  as  ascertained  by 
handling,  &c.,  be  fattened  at  the  same  time.  Let  one  be 
fed  entirely  on  potatoes  raw ;  a  second  on  the  same  root 
steamed  or  boiled  ;  a  third  made  one-half  or  two-thirds  fat  on 
potatoes,  and  hib  fattening  completed  with  Indian  corn ;  a 
fourth  be  fattened  on  Indian  corn,  or  corn  meal ;  a  fifth  be 
fed  wdth  a  mixture  of  all  these  kinds  of  food,  given  together 
in  the  same  mess,  or  in  different  messes.  The  first  food  in 
the  m.orning,  for  the  last-mentioned  bullock,  might  be  a  small 
quantity  of  potatoes,  pumpkins,  or  turnips ;  the  second,  ruta 
baga  or  carrots,  mangel-w^urzel,  or  parsnips.  Then,  as  the 
last  course  of  the  day's  feast,  give  Indian  meal,  or  other  food 
the  richest  you  have.  It  w^ould  be  well,  likewise,  to  try  the 
virtues  of  sweet  apples.  The  most  important  object  of  such 
experiments,  however,  w^ould  be  to  ascertain  whether  the 
beef  of  cattle  fattened  on  potatoes  or  other  roots,  raw  or 
boiled  or  steanied,  is  equal  iii  quality  to  that  w^hich  is  fattened 
on  Indian  corn.  If  not,  whether  an  ox  may  not  be  made 
nearly  fat  enough  for  profit  on  roots  and  hay,  his  fatting 
completed  on  corn,  and  the  flesh  be  as  good  as  if  he  had  been 
fattened  wiiolly  on  corn.  And  if  an  ox  partly  fattened  on 
roots,  and  his  fattening  completed  on  corn,  gives  as  good  beef 
as  one  wholly  fed  on  co^n,  the  question  occurs,  how  long  a 
time  wdll  it  require  to  give  the  beef  its  good  qualities  arising 
from  the  corn  ?  We  know,  as  respects  swine,  that  farmers 
make  them  partly  fat  on  any  thing  which  they  will  devour, 
and  then  feed  them  for  some  time  before  they  .are  killed  with 
Indian  corn  or  meal,  to  '  harden  the  flesh,'  as  they  express  it; 
and  perhaps  the  same  process  wdll  answer  for  beef  caitle. 
Some  farmers  say  that  the  red  or  La  Plata  potato,  given 
raw  to  swine,  make  as  good  pork  as  tliat  which  is  corn  fed. 
Others  say  that  any  kind  of  potatoes,  if  steamed  or  boiled, 
will  make  as  good  pork  as  can  be  made  of  corn.  If  this  be 
true  of  pork,  it  may  be  so  of  beef. 

It  is  a  truth  which  has  been  confirmed  by  repeated  ex- 
periment, that  food  for  swine  fermented  till  it  becomes  a  lit- 
tle acid  will  go  farther  and  fatten  them  faster  than  unfer- 
mented  food  of  the  same  quantity  and  quality.  But  it  is 
not,  I  believe,  generally  known  in  this  country,  that  acid  food 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  49 

is  most  valuable  for  neat  cattle  in  certain  circumstances. 
Mr.  Bordley,  (a  celebrated  American  writer  on  Rural  Eco- 
nomy,) however,  asserts  that  oxen  made  half  fat,  or  in  good 
plight,  on  grass  or  turnips,  are  then  finished,  in  France,  upon 
^  sour  food,  prepared  as  follows :  rye  meal  (buJc  wheat  or 
Indian  meal  may  be  tried)  with  water  is  made  into  paste, 
which  in  a  few  days  ferments  and  becomes  sour ;  this  is  then 
diluted  with  water,  and  thickened  icith  hay,  cut  into  chaff, 
which  the  oxen  sometimes  refuse  the  first  day,  but  when  dry 
they  drink  and  prefer  it.  All  the  husbandmen  are  decidedly 
of  opinion  that  they  fatten  much  better  because  of  the  acidity. 
They  give  it  tiirice  a  day,  and  a  large  ox  eats  tv/enty-two 
pounds  a  day.  Maize  [Indian]  meal,  or  maize  steeped  till  it 
is  sour,  should  be  tried.  This  sour  mess  is  given  during  the 
last  three  weeks  of  their  tattening,  and  they  eat  about  seven 
and  a  half  bushels  of  meal,  value  four  dollars. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  process  of  fermentation  be 
not  Lcirried  too  far.  The  paste  should  not  become  mouldy, 
nor  the  liquid  food  in  the  slightest  degree  putrid.  We  think, 
moreover,  that  there  is  good  reason  for  waiting  till  animals 
become  '  half  fat,'  or  in  good  plight,  before  they  are  fed  v*ath 
acid  food.  Acids,  like  alcohol,  create  appetite  by  stimulat- 
ing the  stomach,  but  if  long  continued  they  weaken  the  di- 
gestive powers,  and  in  time  entirely  destroy  the  tone  of  the 
stomach.  The  animal  will  then  be  visited  with  what  in  a 
human  subject  would  be  called  dyspepsia,  or  a  want  of  the 
power  of  digestion  ;  fattening  him  will  be  out  of  the  ques- 
tion, and  he  will  be  worth  but  little  more  than  the  value  of 
his  hide.  The  constitution  of  an  ox  may  be  destroyed  by 
excessive  eating,  and  it  is  only  towards  the  close  of  his  aays, 
near  the  last  stage  of  his  preparation  for  the  butcher,  that 
he  should  be  allowed  to  become  an  epicure,  and  indulged 
with  as  much  as  he  can  eat  of  rich  and  high  seasoned  food. 

Store  keep  should  neither  be  too  rich  nor  too  abundant ; 
and  if  an  ox  is  once  made  fat  and  then  loses  his  flesh,  he  is 
like  one  of  Pharaoh's  lean  kine,  the  more  he  devours  the 
leaner  he  becomes.  If  young  cattle  are  kept  in  rich  pastures 
in  summer  and  poor  fodder  in  winter,  sometimes  stuffed,  at 
other  times  starved,  tley  lose  their  disposition  to  fatten.  To 
such  cattle  Mr.  Lawrence  alludes,  when  he  says,  '  It  is  ex- 
tremely imprudent  indolently  to  continue  to  keep  at  high 
food  animals  which  do  not  thrive  ;  I  advert  chiefly  to  in- 
dividuals with  which  the  first  loss  is  always  the  least.' 
*  Stock  cattle,'  said  Mr.  Bordley,  '  are  kept^  others  are  fatten- 
5 


50  THE    COMPLETE    FAEMER 

ed.  The  feeding  is  different.  Cattle  kept  need  no  kind  of 
grain,  nor  even  hay,  unless  to  cows  about  calving  time. 
Straw,  with  any  juicy  food,  such  as  roots  or  drank,^  abun- 
dantly suffice  for  keeping  cattle  in  heart  through  the  winter, 
provided  they  are  sheltered  from  cold  rains.  Mr.  Bakewell 
kept  his  fine  cattle  on  straw  and  turnips  through  the  winter. 
A  drank  for  keeping  cattle  may  be  made  thus :  roots,  chaff, 
or  cut  straw,  and  salt,  boiled  together  with  a  good  quantity 
of  water  ;  the  roots  cut  or  mashed.  The  cattle  drink  the 
water  and  eat  the  rest.  Drank  for  fattening  cattle,  thus  : 
roots,  meal,  flax-seed,  chaff,  or  cut  straw,  and  salt,  well  boil- 
ed together  in  plenty  of  water.  If  given  warm,  not  hot,  the 
better.'  The  same  author  says,  '  Hay,  meal,  and  linseed  jelly 
with  drank  must  be  excellent  food  in  stall  feeding.  Linseed 
jelly  is  thus  made  :  seven  quarts  of  w^ater  to  one  of  flax-seed, 
steeped  in  a  part  of  the  water  forty-eight  hours,  then  add  the 
remaining  water,  cold,  and  boil  it  gently  two  hours,  stirring 
constantly  to  prevent  burning.  It  is  cooled  in  tubs,  and 
given  mixed  with  any  meal,  bran,  or  cut  chaff.  Each  bul- 
lock (large)  has  two  quarts  of  jelly  a  day;  equal  to  a  little 
more  than  one  quart  of  seed  in  four  days' 

In  a  tract  entitled  Notices  for  a  Young  Farmer,  WTitten 
by  the  Hon.  Judge  Peters,  formerly  president  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Agricultural  society,  are  the  following  directions  : 

'  Cut  or  chaff  your  hay,  straw,  corn  tops,  or  blades,  and 
even  your  stalks,  w^ith  a  straw  cutter,  and  you  will  save  a 
great  proportion  which  is  otherwise  w^asted  or  passed  through 
the  animal  without  contributing  to  its  nourishment.  One 
bushel  of  chaffed  hay  at  a  mess,  given  in  a  trough,  three 
times  in  twenty-four  hours,  is  sufficient  for  a  horse,  ox,  or 
coAV.  A  bushel  of  chaffed  hay,  lightly  pressed,  weighs  from 
five  to  five  and  a  half  pounds.  A  horse  or  horned  beast 
thrives  more  on  fifteen  pounds  thus  given  than  on  twenty- 
four  or  twenty-five  pounds  as  commonly  expended  (including 
waste)  in  the  usual  manner  of  feeding  in  racks  ;  to  which 
troughs,  properly  constructed,  are  far  preferable.!  Salt 
your  clover  and  other  succulent,  as  well  as  coarse  hay. 
But  over  salting  diminishes  the  nutriment.  More  than  a  peck 
to  a  ton  is  superfluous.  Half  that  quantity  is  often  sufficient. 
Ten  or  fifteen  pounds  is  usually  an  ample  allowance.     Feed- 

*  The  word  drank  is  given  us  by  count  Rumford  for  distinguishing 
this  composition  from  water. 
f  See  farther,  Straw  Cutter,  under  the  head  Agricultural  Implements. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  51 

ing  your  stock  by  weight  and  measure  of  food  will  not  only 
save  your  provender,  by  its  orderly  distribution,  but  frequent- 
ly save  the  lives  of  animals,  too  often  starved  by  niggardliness 
or  neglect,  or  gorged  and  destroyed  by  profusion.  If  it  be 
true,  as  it  is,  that  the  master's  eye  makes  the  horse  fat,  '  it  is 
equally  so  that  the  master's  eye  prevents  the  horse  from  being 
pampered,  wanton,  pursive,  bloated,  foundered,  and  finally 
wind  broken  and  blind.' 

If  hay  is  salted  by  using  salt  in  substance,  it  should  be 
done  at  the  time  it  is  deposited  in  the  mow.  It  is  often  a 
good  practice  to  sprinkle  a  solution  of  salt  in  water  over  hay 
or  other  food  for  cattle  in  the  winter  time,  especially  if  the 
fodder  be  of  an  inferior  quality. 

Colonel  Jaques,  of  Ten  Hills  farm,  Charlestown,  (Mass.) 
has  been  very  successful  in  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  neat 
cattle,  and  recommends  from  actual  experiment  the  following 
mixture  : 

Take  Ruta  Baga,  cut  fine,  2  bushels. 

"     Wheat  bran,  1  bushel. 

"     Powdered  oil  cake,  J  bushel. 

"     English  hay,  barley  straw,  and 

salt  hay,  cut,  of  each,  7  bushels. 

"     Water,  10  gallons. 

Let  them  be  perfectly  mixed.  Give  a  bushel  of  the  mix- 
ture to  a  cow  of  the  con.mon  size  every  night  and  morning, 
and  proportionably  to  greater  or  smaller  animals. 

O71  soiling  laboring  Oxen  and  Horses.  By  soiling  do- 
mestic animals,  is  meant  keeping  them  in  yards,  &;c.,  and 
cutting  and  giving  them  grass,  with  or  without  other  green 
or  dry  food.  Instead  of  turning  your  oxen  and  horses, 
which  you  have  occasion  to  use  frequently,  into  a  pasture, 
perhaps  adorned  with  thickets  of  brushwood,  in  which  the 
animals  may  hide  themselves  beyond  the  reach  of  a  search 
warrant,  you  had  better  soil  them,  and  thus  have  them  al- 
ways at  hand.  You  must  be  careful  that  they  are  always 
well  supplied  with  water,  and  plenty  of  litter  to  absorb  the 
liquid  manure,  unless  you  have  reservoirs,  &c.  to  answer  the 
purpose  of  preventing  its  waste.  The  famous  cultivator 
Arthur  Young  observed  that  lucerne  is  the  best  plant  for 
soiling,  and  an  acre  of  it  will  go  farther  than  any  thing  else. 
But  clover  or  any  other  grass,  green  or  dry,  butts  of  Indian 
corn  cut  up  near  the  roots,  cabbages,  &c.,  &c.,  may  often  be 
economically  disposed  of  in  soiling  cattle  or  horses  whose 
services  are  requisite  for  the  daily  and  hourly  labors  of  the 


52  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

husbandman.  But  soiling  on  a  large  or  general  plan  will 
not  soon,  if  ever,  be  adopted  in  New  England,  where  there 
are  so  many  thousands  of  acres  of  pasture  land  which  are 
fit  for  nothing  but  grazing. 

Cooking  Food  for  Cattle.  Among  the  most  useful  im- 
provements of  modern  husbandry,  may  be  numbered  the 
practice  of  steaming  or  boiling  food  for  domestic  animals. 
Some  account  of  the  origin  of  this  practice  in  Great  Britain 
may  be  found  in  the  Complete  Grazier^  an  English  work 
of  reputation,  from  which  we  have  made  the  following  ex- 
tracts. 

'  Steamed  food  may  be  given  to  milch  cows  to  great  ad- 
vantage. For  this  important  fact  in  rural  economy  we  are 
indebted  to  the  ingenious  and  persevering  experiments  of  J. 
C.  Curwin,  Esq.,  M.  P.,  whose  attention  to  the  comforts  of 
his  tenants,  and  judicious  zeal  for  the  improvement  of  agri- 
culture, are  too  well  known  to  require  any  eulogy.  In  pro- 
secution of  a  system  which  he  had  long  practised  of  giving 
cooked  food  to  animals,  Mr.  Curwin  turned  his  attention  to 
the  cheapest  mode  of  supplying  milch  cows  with  it ;  and  in 
a  communication  to  the  society  for  the  Encouragement  of 
Arts,  &c.,  (w^hich  was  honored  with  their  lesser  gold  medal,) 
he  stated  his  belief  that  he  has  at  length  been  completely 
successful.  He  uses  a  steam  boiler  of  1 00  gallons'  contents,* 
on  each  side  of  which  are  fixed  three  boxes,  containing  eleven 
stones!  each  of  chaff,  (the  husks  of  wheat,  rye,  &c.,)  which 
by  behig  steamed  gain  more  than  one-third  of  their  original 
weight.  The  steam  is  conveyed  by  various  cocks  into  the 
lower  part  of  the  boxes  ;  and  thus  two  or  three  boxes  may 
be  steamed  at  the  same  time.  The  quantity  of  fuel  required 
was  about  two  pounds  for  each  stone  of  chaff. 

'  In  giving  the  steamed  chaff  to  the  cattle,  two  pounds  of 
oil  cake  were  mixed  with  one  stone  of  chaff;  and  the  milch 
cows  are  fed  with  it  morning  and  evening,  having  an  allow- 
ance of  one  stone  at  each  time.  On  being  taken  from  the 
steamer  the  food  is  put  into  wooden  boxes,  which  are  mount- 
ed on  wheels,  to  be  drawn  to  the  place  where  it  is  intended 
to  be  used ;  and  the  chaff  requires  to  stand  some  time  before 
it  is  fit  for  use. 

'  The  average  milk  on  a  stock  of  thirty-six  milch  cows  was 

*  An  engraving  of  it  is  given  in  the  thirtieth  volume  of  the  society's 
Transact'ons. 
J  Fourteen  pounds  a  stone. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOmST.  53 

nearly  thirteen  wine  quarts  for  320  days.  The  cows  were 
never  sufTered  to  be  turned  out ;  and  to  prevent  their  being 
lame,  their  hoofs  were  properly  pared,  and  they  stood  with  their 
fore  feet  on  clay.  One  great  advantage  attending  this  method 
was,  that  most  if  not  all  the  milch  cows  were  in  such  a  con- 
dition, that  with  a  few  weeks'  feeding,  after  they  were  dry, 
they  became  fit  for  the  shambles,  with  very  little  loss  from 
the  first  cost.  As  a  substitute  for  chaff  and  oil  cake,  Mr. 
Curwin  recommends  cut  hay ;  which,  when  steamed,  would 
make  very  superior  food,  and  he  entertains  no  doubt  would 
greatly  anient  the  milk  as  well  as  the  health  of  the  ani- 
mals.' 

An  apparatus  for  steaming  food  for  cattle  should  be  con- 
sidered a  necessary  appendage  of  every  arable  and  dairy 
farm  of  a  moderate  size.  The  advantage  of  preparing  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  roots,  as  well  as  even  grain,  chaff,  and  hay, 
by  means  of  steaming  apparatus,  for  the  nourishment  of  cat- 
tle, begins  now  to  be  generally  understood.  It  has  bf.en  long 
known  that  many  sorts  of  roots,  and  pr.rticularly  the  potato, 
become  much  more  valuable  by  undergoing  this  sort  of  pre- 
paration. And  it  is  equally  well  knovrn  that  when  thus  pre- 
pared they  have  been  employed  alone  as  a  substitute  for  grain, 
with  cut  chaff'  for  hay  and  grain,  in  the  feeding  of  horses 
as  well  as  other  animals.  To  a  farmer  who  keeps  horses  or 
cattle,  or  even  swine  or  poultry,  the  practice  of  bol-iiig  their 
food  in  steam  is  so  great  a  saving  and  advantage,  thai  it  ae- 
serves  the  most  particular  attention.  Though  potatoes  have 
often  been  given  raw  both  to  horses  and  caule,  they  are 
found  to  be  greatly  preferable  when  cooked  by  steam,  as  they 
are  thereby  rendered  much  drier  and  more  nutritive,  and  bet- 
ter than  when  boiled  in  water  ;  this  has  been  long  smce 
shown  by  the  experiments  of  Wakefield,  cf  Liverpool,  who, 
in  order  to  ascertain  it,  fed  some  of  his  horses  on  steamed 
and  some  on  raw  potatoes,  and  soon  found  the  horses  fed  on 
the  steanied  potatoes  had  greatly  the  advantage  in  every  re- 
spect. Those  fed  on  steamed  potatoes  looked  perfectly 
smooth  and  sleek,  while  the  others  were  quite  rough. 

A  steaming  machine  on  a  simple  and  economical  plan  con- 
sists of  a  boiler,  and  a  wooden  chest  or  box,  placed  over  or 
near  it.  The  box  may  be  of  any  size,  and  so  pkc.ed  as  to 
be  supplied  and  emptied  by  wheel  o'*  hand  barrows  in  the 
easiest  manner,  either  by  the  end  or  top,  or  both,  being  made 
to  open.  If  the  box  is  made  eight  feet  by  five,  md  three  feet 
deep,  it  will  hold  as  many  potatoes  as  will  feed  fifty  cow3 
5# 


54 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


for  twenty-four  hours,  and  these  may  be  steamed  in  an 
hour.^ 

The  practice  of  cooking  food  for  cattle  is  by  no  means  a 
novehy  in  New  England.  A  simple  apparatus  for  this  pur- 
pose much  used  is  as  follows  : 

A  kettlt,  holding  twelve  gallons  or  more,  is  set  in  a  fur- 
nace of  brick  or  stone,  and  over  this  a  hogshead  with  one 
head  taken  out  and  the  other  bored  full  of  holes.  This  is  set 
so  close  that  the  steam  of  the  kettle,  when  boiling,  can  only  rise 
through  the  holes,  end  thence  ascend  among  the  articles  to 
be  boiled  in  the  hogshead,  and  pass  off  at  the  top.  In  this 
way  a  hogshead  of  potatoes  will  be  nearly  as  soon  boiled 
as  a  small  part  of  them  could  be  if  placed  in  the  kettle  un- 
derneath. 

As  the  kettle  is  so  closed  as  to  prevent  any  steam  from 
passing  off  but  through  the  bottom  of  the  hogshead,  a  pipe 
or  tube  is  set  in  such  a  manner  that  with  the  aid  of  a  funnel 
water  may  be  poured  into  the  kettle  as  often  as  is  necessary. 
After  the  water  is  poured  in,  the  tube  is  stopped  with  a  plug 
for  that  purpose. 

Grain  of  all  kinds  may  be  steam  I  oiled  to  great  advantage 
for  feeding  and  fattening  cattle  ;  bat  in  that  case  it  is  requi- 
site to  have  the  bottom  of  the  hopi-shead  covered  with  a  cloth, 
to  prevent  the  gram  from  running  down  through  the  holes. 

In  the  fifth  volume  of  the  N.  E.  Farmer,  p.  306,  are  some 
notices  of  the  use  made  of  steam  in  preparing  food  for  cat- 
tle, in  a  letter  from  R.  Smith,  Esq.,  president  of  the  Mary- 
land Agricultural  society,  on  the  management  of  dairy  cat- 
tle, &c.,  to  John  Hare  Powel,  Esq. 

'  For  the  purpose  of  augmenting  the  quantity  and  improv- 
ing the  quality  of  the  food  of  my  stock  of  every  kind,  I  have 
established  a  steaming  apparatus.  It  consists  of  a  boiler  and 
two  wooden  boxes,  in  which  boxes  is  steamed  the  food. 
These  boxes  contain  each  eighty  bushels.  By  this  simple 
apparatus  every  species  of  coarse  vegetable  offal  is  converted 
into  nourishmg  food,  and  all  the  ordinary  provender  is  ren- 
dered more  nutritious. 

'  In  the  dairies  near  Philadelphia,  it  is  well  known,  that 
sweet  butter  of  the  first  quality  cannot  be  made  but  from 
cream  quickly  produced  from  fresh  milk,  and  that  whenever 
the  milk  remains  many  days  to  produce  its   cream,  such 

*For  a  simple  apparatus  for  slearaing  food  for  cattle  and  swine,  see  a 
cut  under  the  head  Agricultural  Implements. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  55 

creim  acquires  an  unpleasant  taste  that  is  imparted  to  the 
butter. 

'  Since  the  month  of  January,  1823,  my  dairy  people  have 
been  in  the  practice  of  always  placing  the  pans  containing 
the  milk  in  water  simmering  hot.  The  oily  parts  which 
constitute  the  cream  are  by  such  heat  separated  from  the 
other  ingredients,  and  then,  from  their  specific  lightness,  they 
of  course  ascend  to  the  top  in  ihe  form  of  cream.  Cream 
is  thus  obtained  during  the  coldest  weather  in  winter  in  the 
course  of  about  twelve  hourc  after  the  milk  has  been  taken 
from  the  cows.  And  the  operation  of  churning  such  cream 
never  exceeds  twenty-five  minutes.  The  milk  pans  remain 
in  the  hot  water  about  thirty  minutes.  The  butter  has  in- 
variably been  of  a  fine  flavor,  and  of  a  beautiful  yellow  color  ; 
and,  in  the  nature  of  things,  it  never  can  be  otherwise,  unless 
the  dairy  iVoman  should  be  utterly  ignorant  of  the  art  of 
making  sweet  butter. 

'  It  may  not  be  amiss  to  state  to  you  that  the  skim-milk 
under  this  process  is  a  very  pleai^ant  beverage.  In  summer 
and  winter  it  bears  the  agitation  of  a  carriage  without  becom- 
ing sour.  And  every  morning  through  the  year  a  person 
comes  to  the  farm  and  takes  from  250  to  300  quarts,  for 
which  he  pays  two  cents  per  quart,  cash,  and  on  the  same 
day  he  retails  the  whole  among  the  people  of  the  town,  at 
three  cents  per  quart. 

'  The  hot  water  in  which  the  milk  pans  are  placed  is  con- 
tained in  large  flat  wooden  vessels,  attached  to  a  stove.  The 
water  is  heated  by  means  of  a  flat  tube  fastened  to  the  side, 
and  near  to  the  bottom  of  each  vessel,  and  introduced  through 
an  aperture  into  the  stove.  The  heat  of  the  stove  affords 
the  additional  advantage  of  preserving  in  the  dairy  house 
the  requisite  temperature  during  the  winter  season. 

'  The  dairy  house  is  a  stone  building,  consisting  of  three 
spacious  apartments  for  the  preservation  of  the  milk,  the 
cream,  and  the  butter,  and  for  the  making  of  the  butter. 
Two  of  these  apartments  are  under  ground  and  arched,  and 
properly  ventilated.  To  the  south  side  is  attached  a  con- 
venient shed,  with  the  requisite  shelves,  and  with  a  copper 
boiler  fo^*  washing  and  keeping  in  good  and  sweet  condition 
all  the  dairy  utensils.     In  front  is  a  pent  house.' 

Jesse  Buel,  Esq.,  recommends  using  a  boiler  instead  of  a 
wooden  vessel  for  cooking  food  for  swine.  He  observes,  '  I 
have  th7•o^vn  by  my  steamt  r  for  hog  food  and  substituted  a 
boiler.     The  former  consisted  of  a  sixty  gallon  cask,  over  a 


56  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

potash  kettle  badly  set.  I  could  only  work  off  four  or  five 
casks  a  day,  with  great  labor  and  trouble,  and  the  apparatus 
required  to  be  luted  with  clay  at  every  operation.  With  my 
new  kettle,  holding  thirty  gallons,  which  is  a  thin  and  beautiful 
casting,  I  have  cooked  eight  and  nine  barrels  in  half  a  day, 
end  much  better  than  by  the  steam  process.  This  food  con- 
sists of  small  refuse  potatoes,  of  which  I  have  nearly  100 
bushels,  or  fifteen  per  cent  of  my  whole  crop,  pumpkins,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  Indian  meal.  A  half  day's  boiling  serves 
my  hog  family  for  four  or  five  days  ;  and  it  is  always  kept 
prepared  in  advance.  The  actual  expense  of  fattening  hogs 
thus,  upon  the  refuse  of  the  farm  crop,  is  fifty  to  seventy-five 
per  cent,  less  than  feeding  with  dry  corn. 

'  The  economy  of  my  apparatus  consists  much  in  setting 
the  boiler  so  as  to  have  all  the  advantage  of  the  fire.  The 
interior  brick  work  is  made  to  conform  to  the  s^iape  of  the 
boiler,  leaving  an  interval  of  four  to  six  inches  between  them 
for  the  fire,  round  the  whole  exterior  of  the  kettle,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  inches  at  top,  where  the  flange  or  rim 
rests  upon  the  projectmg  bricks.  Thus  the  boiler  is  not  only 
encompassed  by  the  flame,  but  the  heat  is  augmented  by  ra- 
diation from  the  brick  work.  The  fuel  is  burnt  on  a  grate, 
which  extends  nearly  to  the  kettle,  four  or  five  inches  above 
the  level  of  its  bottom.  My  boiler  being  in  operation  while 
I  am  preparing  these  remarks,  I  have  ascertained  that  a  ket- 
tle of  potatoes  with  three  pails  of  cold  wcter,  covered  with 
boards,  has  been  completely  boiled  in  eighteen  minutes  from 
the  time  they  were  put  in,  another  boiling  having  been  just  pre- 
viously taken  out.  My  kettle  was  set  by  a  son  in  his  teens, 
without  assistance,  and  was  his  first  effort  in  masonry.' 

In  cooking  for  caitle,  however,  when  hay  and  other  bulky 
articles  of  food  are  prepared  by  heat,  steam  will  be  found 
the  best  medium.  Care  should  be  taken  to  make  the  vessel 
in  which  the  steaming  is  effected  so  tight  that  the  steana 
cannot  escape  till  it  becomes  quite  hot  and  elastic.  A  cover 
of  good  weight  sitting  close,  but  capable  of  being  raised  a 
little  by  steam  of  high  pressure,  may  be  made  to  operate 
like  a  safety  valve,  and  at  the  same  time  confine  the  steam 
till  it  exceeds  212  degrees,  the  heat  of  boiling  water.  Any 
food  is  better  when  cooked  by  steam  of  a  high  temperature, 
than  when  merely  soaked  in  an  artificial  fog,  not  much 
warmer   than  a  mist  which   caps  the  hills  on  a  summer's 


AND   KURAL   ECONOMIST.  57 

CALVES.  Calves  designed  for  veal  should  be  taken  from 
the  cow  the  next  day  after  they  are  calved.  They  should 
be  permitted  to  suck  only  two  teats  during  the  first  week, 
three  during  the  second,  and  should  have  the  whole  of  the 
milk  the  third  and  fourth  w^cek,  at  the  end  of  which  time 
they  will  be  fit  to  kill.  The  teats  not  allowed  to  be  sucLed 
should  be  previously  milked. 

When  calves  are  to  be  reared,  some  permit  them  to  run 
with  the  cow,  and  take  all  the  milk  the  first  season.  But 
fine  animals  are  raised  without  taking  any  milk  from  the  cow 
after  three  or  four  days.  They  should  have  more  or  less 
milk  for  about  twelve  weeks.  They  may  be  fed  with  skim- 
med milk  or  water  gruel  after  the  first  fc^tnight  ;  or  hay 
tea  maybe  mixed  with  their  milk,  or  their  milk  may  be  mix- 
ed with  meal  and  water.  After  a  calf  has  sucked  or  drank 
milk  for  the  space  of  a  month,  take  some  fresh  and  sweet 
hay,  and  put  small  locks  of  it  into  cieft  sticks,  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  calf  can  easily  have  access  to  them,  and  he 
will  soon  learn  to  eat  hay. 

Whether  calves  are  intended  to  be  fattened  or  to  be  rear- 
ed, it  is  best  to  feed  them  three  times  a  day.  3"t  whether 
they  are  fed  tAvo  or  three  times,  the  intervals  between  their 
meals  should  be  regular,  and  as  nearly  as  possible  equi-distant. 

The  method  for  rearing  calves  pursued  by  Mr.  Crook,  as 
mentioned  in  '  The  Letters  and  Papers  of  the  Bath  and 
West  of  England  Society,''  is  as  follows :  He  purchased  three 
sacks  of  linseed,  value  21.  2s.,  (equal  to  about  nine  dollars,) 
which  lasted  him  three  years.  One  quart  of  seed  was  boiled 
in  six  quarts  of  water  for  ten  minutes,  to  a  jelly,  which  was 
given  to  the  calves  three  times  a  day  mixed  with  a  little  hay 
tea.  And  he  states  that  his  calves  throve  much  belter  than 
those  of  his  neighbors,  which  were  fed  with  milk.  Thus  it 
seems  that  less  than  eighteen  cents'  worth  of  flax-seed,  with 
a  trifle  of  hay,  is  sufficient  for  one  calf.  Linseed  oil  cakes, 
when  pulverized  and  boiled,  make  an  equally  good  broth  or 

If  skim-milk  is  given  to  calves  it  should  be  boiled,  and 
suffered  to  stand  till  it  cools  to  the  temperatu^^e  of  that  first 
given  by  the  cow.  It  is  better  J^oiled  than  when  warmed 
only.  If  the  milk  be  given  too  cold  it  will  cause  the  calf  Co 
purge.  If  this  is  the  case,  put  two  or  three  spoonfuls  of 
runnet  into  the  milk,  and  it  will  stop  the  looseness.  If  the 
calf  is  bound,  pork  broth  is  said  to  be  a  good  and  safe  thing 
to  put  into  the  milk. 


68  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

Dr.  Deane  was  of  opinion  that  it  was  better  to  wean 
calves  on  hay  than  on  grass.  '  They  are  more  docile  when 
raised  in  the  barn,  and  thrive  better.'  A  Mr.  John  Gordon 
says  that  '  calves  should  not  be  suffered  to  eat  any  grass  the 
first  year,  and  from  experience  I  find  it  much  the  cheapest  to 
keep  them  shut  up  and  feed  them,  as  the  land  sufficient  to 
pasture  one  will  produce  hay  enough  to  feed  two  calves 
through  the  year,  and  pay  the  expense  of  cultivation,  and 
one  year's  growth  will  certainly  be  added  to  the  cattle.^ 

It  is  not  probable,  however,  that  many  of  our  farmers  will 
incur  the  trouble  of  raising  calves  in  a  barn ;  therefore, 
•when  calves  are  put  in  a  pasture,  it  should  be  such  as  is 
dry  and  sweet.  White  clover  is  the  best  for  them ;  red  clo- 
ver or  trefoil  is  also  good.  Mr.  L.  Hommedieu  recommends 
that  there  be  no  water  in  the  pasture,  but  sufficient  shade. 
The  effect  of  this  is  that  the  calves  learn  to  feed  at  night,  or 
when  the  dew  is  on,  and  lie  by  in  the  day  ;  and  as  the  grass 
while  wet  with  dew  is  believed  to  be  most  nourishing,  they 
will  in  this  way  thrive  much  better  than  those  which  have 
free  access  to  water ;  for  this,  it  is  contended  by  Mr.  L. 
Hommedieu,  has  a  tendency  to  stunt  them,  and  make  them 
pot-bellied.  Probably  the  better  way  is,  to  give  them  a  little 
nourishing  drink  at  certain  times,  when  the  dews  fail,  or  at 
mid-day,  Avhen  the  weather  is  very  warm.'t 

The  best  calves  for  bringing  up  are  those  calved  early  in 
the  season,  or  before  June.  '  When  calves  are  weaned,  they 
should  not  be  suffered  to  be  with  their  dams  any  more  till 
fall ;  neither  should  they  be  pastured  within  sight  or  hear- 
ing of  them.  It  will  cause  them  to  neglect  their  feeding ; 
and  they  will  not  forget  their  sucking. 

At  the  setting  in  of  cold  nights  in  autumn,  calves  must  be 
nightly  housed ;  and  not  be  out  early  in  the  morning,  nor 
late  in  the  evening.  And  as  the  pinching  cold  of  winter  will 
be  extremely  detrimental  to  them,  they  should  be  kept  very 
warm  in  their  house,  well  supplied  with  water,  and  let  out 
only  on  the  warmest  days.  A  great  deal  of  care  is  necessa- 
ry to  bring  them  through  the  first  winter,  which  is  the  most 
dangerous  period  of  their  lives.  They  will  acquire  so  much 
strength  during  the  following  summer  that  they  will  have 
nothing  to  fear  from  the  cold  of  a  second  winter.' — Buffon, 
Histoire  Naturelle. 

i  lie    American    Farmer    gives    the   following   method   of 

*  Mass.  Agr.  Rep.  vpl.  v.  p.  78.  f  Farmer's  Assistant. 


AND    RURAL   ECONOMIST.  59 

making  hay  tea  for  calvcr.  Take  about  a  pound  of  red  clover 
hay,  well  got  in,  and  six  quarts  of  clear  spring  water  ;  boil 
them  together  till  the  Avater  is  reduced  to  four  quarts  ;  then 
take  out  the  hay  and  mix  a  pound  of  barley,  oat,  bean,  [or 
Indian]  meal  amongst  a  little  water,  put  it  in  the  pot  or 
cauldron  Avhib  boiling,  and  keep  it  constantly  stirring  until 
it  is  thickened.  Let  it  cool,  then  give  it  to  the  calf,  adding 
as  much  whey  as  will  make  a  sufficient  meal. 

To  make  calves  lie  quiet,  more  especially  during  a  tempo- 
rary scarcity  of  milk,  balls  made  of  wheat  flour,  and  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  gin  to  form  it  into  a  paste,  are  recommend- 
ed by  Mr.  Marshall ;  three  balls  about  the  size  of  walnuts 
to  be  given  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  before  each  meal. 
The  effect  is,  that  instead  of  wasting  themselves  by  incessant 
'bawling,'  they  lie  quiet,  sleeping  a  principal  part  of  the 
time.  Probably,  Indian  or  rye  meal,  mixed  up  with  gin, 
whiskey,  or  other  cheap  spirit,  might  answer  a  good  purpose 
as  an  occasional  expedient.  We  should  not  advise,  however, 
to  o^ten  diet  calves  in  that  manner,  unless  they  w^ere  intended 
for  the  butcher  ;  for  we  should  be  apprehensive  that  feeding 
them  with  such  nice  messes  Avould  render  them  too  delicate 
and  mealy  mouthed  to  become  hardy  and  profitable  cattle. 
Young  advises,  when  calves  are  troubled  with  scouring,  to 
give  them  powdered  chalk  and  wheat  meal,  worked  into  a 
ball  with  gin. 

The  following  is  the  mode  of  rearing  calves  adopted  by 
the  society  denominated  Shakers,  in  Canterbury,  New 
Hampshire,  communicated  in  a  letter  from  Mr.  Francis 
Winkley  to  Mr.  Levi  Bartlett,  of  Warren,  New  Hampshire, 
and  publiehed  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  ii.  p.  305. 

'  We  let  calves  that  come  in  the  fore  part  of  March  suck 
about  a  week  or  ten  days,  then  take  them  from  the  cow,  giv- 
ing them  a  moderate  allowance  of  new  milk  to  drink,  till 
they  have  learned  to  drink  it  freely  ;  then  put  in  some  skim- 
med milk ;  and  we  feed  them  wholly  with  skimmed  milk, 
taking  care  to  give  it  at  about  the  temperature  of  milk  taken 
directly  from  the  cow,  by  heating  a  part  of  it  and  mixing  it 
with  the  rest.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  scald  the  milk 
when  heated;  also  not  to  give  them  any  sour  milk,  for  this 
will  make  them  scour.  The  trough  or  vessel  in  which  they 
drink  their  milk  should  likewise  be  kept  clean,  and  not  suf- 
fered to  become  sour. 

'  We  let  the  milk  stand  about  twelve  hours  before  it  is 
skimmed ;  giving  a  calf  at  first  about  four  quarts  night  and 


60  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

morning- ;  increasing  the  mess  as  need  requires  till  he  is  sis 
weeks  old,  from  which  time  till  ten  weeks  old  he  will  re- 
quire, perhaps,  about  twelve  quarts  per  day. 

'  When  about  ten  weeks  old,  we  begin  to  diminish  the  quan- 
tity of  r  ilk  for  about  the  space  of  two  or  three  v/eeks,  at 
which  time  we  wean  them-  During  the  whole  process  from 
two  to  fourteen  weeks  of  age,  calves  should  be  well  supplied 
with  good  hay,  salt,  and  provender;  such  as  oats,  wheat 
bran,  and  oil  cake,  ground  fine. 

'  The  particular  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  above 
method  of  treatment  are  the  following : 

'1.  It  is  much  cheaper  than  to  let  them  suck  in  the  ordi- 
nary way ;  whereas  it  makes  a  great  saving  af  cream  for 
butter,  and  that  without  injurmg  the  calves,  if  they  are  pro- 
perly attended  to. 

'  2.  It  prevents  calves  from  moaning  or  pining  so  much 
while  weaning,  as  they  would  otherwise  do,  when  taken  from 
the  cows. 

'  3.  It  not  only  prevents  the  cows  being  injured  in  conse- 
quence of  the  calves  biting  the  teats,  but  also  prevents  their 
holding  back  the  milk  from  the  milker,  which  often  serves  to 
diminish  the  quantity  of  milk  afterwards. 

'  The  only  disadvantage  to  be  found  in  the  above  method 
of  treatment  is,  that  it  requires  some  more  labor  to  feed 
them,  where  they  thrive  equally  well  in  every  respect  as  those 
do  which  are  permitted  to  suck  in  the  ordinary  way.' 

The  follo\^ing  is  frim  the  United  States  Gazette. 

'  Among  the  modern  improvements  in  farming,  the  dairy 
has  of  late  years  been  very  much  neglected.  So  much  of 
the  profit  of  breeders  depending  upon  the  facility  with  which 
the  milk  of  the  cow  may  be  reserved  during  the  sucking  time 
of  the  calf,  the  following  substitute,  used  in  Germany,  for 
the  natural  food  of  the  young  progeny,  may  be  acceptable  to 
our  counti-y  readers. 

'  Let  as  much  water  be  heated  on  the  fire  as  the  calf  will 
be  disposed  to  drink,  and  when  it  boils  throw  one  or  two 
handfuls  of  oat  meal"^  into  it,  and  after  continuing  in  that 
state  for  one  minute,  take  it  off,  and  let  it  be  cooled  to  the 
teniDerature  of  ncAV  milk,  when  one  or  two  pints  of  skim- 
med milk  are  to  be  added  to  it.  With  this  beverage,  the 
young  animal  will  fatten  and  thrive  prodigiously :  the  milk 
of  the  parent  will  be  applied  to  the  dairy,  and  the  intelligent 

*  Indian  meal  will  do  as  well. 


AND    RURAL   ECONOMIST. 


61 


farmer  will  immediately  discover  the  great  advantage  to  be 
derived  in  the  produce  oi  the  dairy  from   such  an  expedient.' 

Willich's  Encyclopedia  observes,  '  In  order  to  make  calves 
fine  and  fat,  the  best  and  most  efficacious  way  is,  to  keep 
them  as  cleai.  as  possible,  by  elevating  their  coops  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  sun  may  not  have  too  great  power  over 
them,  and  to  such  a  height  above  the  level  of  the  ground 
that  their  urine  may  pe.ss  off;  by  giving  them  fresh  litter 
every  day,  and  suspending  over  the  coop  a  large  chalk-stone, 
so  that  they  can  easily  lick  it.  Besides  this,  it  is  usual  to 
bleed  them  when  they  are  about  a  month  old,  and  again  just 
before  they  are  slaughtered ;  which  practice  tends  in  a  con- 
siderable degree  to  the  beauty  and  whiteness  of  the  flesh, 
and  is  therefore  more  frequently  repeated  by  some  farmers ; 
[in  England ;]  but  this  is  not  altogether  necessary ;  twice 
bleeding  being  fully  sufficient  for  that  purpose,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  most  experienced  breeders.  It  is,  how^ever,  to  be  ob- 
serve 1,  that  those  calves  which  are  intended  for  bulls  or  for 
oxen  should  be  selected  as  soon  as  possible ;  as  the  operation 
necessary  to  make  them  oxen  should  not  be  deferred  till  the 
calves  are  more  than  twenty  days  old. 

A  writer  for  the  N.  E.  Farmer,  with  the  signature  S.  X., 
vol.  viii.  p.  76,  observes,  that  '  A  very  intelligent  practical 
farmer  states  that  he  considers  nothing  more  conducive  to 
the  thriving  of  sucking  calves  than  to  keep  in  their  pen  an 
ample  supply  of  dry  yellow  loam,  of  which  they  are  at  liberty 
to  eat  freely  as  they  choose.  They  will  eat  it  eagerly,  p.nd 
he  regards  it  of  more  value  than  Indian  meal.  There  is  no 
better  evidence  of  its  utility  than  the  fact  that  no  man's  calves 
find  a  readier  sale  or  bring  a  higher  price  in  our  market  than 
his.     The  philosophy  of  it  we  do  not  pretend  to  explain.' 

Moubray  says,  '  The  calf  may  be  sold  (or  taken  from  the 
cow)  as  soon  as  it  has  drawn  the  biestings  or  first  milk,  un- 
less any  coring  or  defect  in  the  cow's  udder  or  teats  may 
render  it  desirable  for  the  calf  to  suck  a  few  days,  in  order 
that  the  action  may  clear  off"  any  obstructions,  for  which  the 
butting  of  the  calf's  head  is  generally  the  best  remedy.  If 
intended  to  be  fattened  for  the  butcher,  it  must  be  kept  in  a 
pen  particularly  dry  and  clean ;  suckled  twice  a  day  at  regu- 
lar hours ;  always  have  the  first,  which  is  the  thinnest  of 
the  milk,  and  not  be  permitted  to  overcharge  its  stomach. 
Lumps  of  soft  chalk  are  usually  placed  for  the  calf  to  lick, 
as  an  absorbent  to  neutralize  the  acidities  engendered  in  the 
6 


62  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

stomach  from  feeding  on  milk.  It  seldom  pays  to  fatten  a 
calf  beyond  ten  or  twelve  weeks. 

'  Weam7ig  and  rearing  Calves.  A  calf  may  be  weaned  by 
being  gradually  accustomed  to  suck  milk  in  a  pail  through 
the  fingers.  Many  are  reared  on  very  little  milk  mixed  with 
hay  tea,  linseed,  or  other  slops;  fed  on  straw  in  th^  winter, 
and  in  summer  on  the  common :  such  cannot  be  expected  to 
turn  to  much  account.  The  best  cattle  are  reared  from  the 
teats,  well  wintered  in  good  shelter,  and  full  fed  until  they 
attain  their  growth.  Warmth  and  dry  lodging  are  of  the 
utmost  consequence  to  the  improvement  of  all  young  ani- 
mals. Calves  may,  however,  be  reared  to  good  profit  by 
being  suffered  to  suck  a  very  moderate  quantity  daily,  the 
bulk  of  their  food  consisting  of  skimmed  milk,  thickened 
with  oat  or  wheat  meal;  their  winter  food  being  carrots  or 
Swedish  turnips  sliced,  and  cut  straw,  with  a  small  quantity 
of  hay,  daily.' 

The  Grazier's  Guide  observes,  '  If  the  calf  be  intended 
for  the  butcher,  it  may  be  taken  from  the  cow  in  about  a 
week  or  ten  days,  and  fed  the  remainder  of  the  time  by 
hand ;  but  the  time  of  taking  the  calf  away  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  state  of  the  cow's  udder ;  for  unless  that  be 
free  from  kernels  and  indurations,  the  calf  must  be  allowed 
to  suck,  as  the  jolting  of  its  head  is  the  means  of  healing  or 
restoring  the  udder,  and  preventing  the  downfall  or  inflam- 
mation in  this  part,  ^vhich  might  cause  much  trouble,  and 
eve.i  endanger  the  life  of  the  cow. 

'  But  if  the  calf  is  intended  to  be  reared,  it  should  not  be 
weaned  until  at  least  six  wrecks  or  even  two  months  old, 
whether  male  or  female.  For  such  there  is  no  food  like  the 
cow's  mitk ;  and  if  she  does  not  yield  a  sufficient  quantity, 
that  of  another  ought  to  be  had  recourse  to.  It  is  an  incon- 
trovertible fact,  that  the  longer  a  calf  sucks,  not  only  the 
larger  and  stronger  will  it  become,  but  it  will  also  acquire  a 
much  better  form  and  more  robust  health.' 

Calves  which  come  early  should  be  preferred  for  the  rear- 
ing. Those  which  come  late  do  not  acquire  sufficient 
strength  to  bear  the  cold  of  winter ;  they  languish,  and  are 
reared  with  difficulty.  Calves  should  not  be  weaned  too 
suddenly,  but  by  little  and  little.  The  less  they  are  able  to 
eat,  the  more  they  should  be  allowed  to  s\ick ;  after  a  while 
they  may  be  brought  to  take  it  from  the  pail.  This  is  done 
by  placiixg  the  hand  in  the  milk,  with  the  palm  upwards,  and 
under  the  milk,  while  the  fingrers  are  raised  above  the  sur- 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  63 

face  of  the  milk  for  the  calf  to  lay  hold  of  with  its  mouth, 
which  it  does  very  readily,  and  sucks  up  the  milk  with  great 
ease. 

When  they  are  completely  taken  away,  they  should  be 
fed  with  a  little  bran,  and  some  of  the  best  soft  and  fragrant 
hay  of  the  second  crop ;  they  should  be  allowed  plenty  of 
the  skimmed  milk,  and  now  and  then  a  little  water  in  which 
barley  has  been  boiled  and  broken  up,  or  a  little  buttermilk 
occasionally.  There  is  at  first  some  difficulty  in  bringing 
them  to  drink,  but  a  little  perseverance  will  accustom  them 
to  it. 

Moderate  warmth  and  dry  lodging  are  of  the  utmost  con- 
sequence to  young  calves ;  and  if  we  would  turn  them  to 
any  good  account,  they  must  not  be  stinted  either  in  these 
or  in  their  food.  Calves  which  have  recently  been  weaned 
and  are  not  at  pasture  should  be  fed  often,  at  least  three 
times,  and  it  is  better  five  times  a  day.  As  soon  as  they  are 
fit  to  follow  the  mother  they  should  be  let  out,  as  they  are 
greatly  benefited  by  air  and  exercise.  Calves  sometimes  ac- 
quire a  habit  of  sucking  one  another,  of  which  trick  they 
may  be  broken  by  separating  them. 

Calves  cannot  be  kept  too  clean,  nor  have  fresh  litter  too 
often.  If  they  are  suffered  to  lie  on  their  own  dung-  and 
urine,  they  will  become  mangy,  and  scarcely  ever  thrive. 
They  are  subject  to  several  disorders,  such  as  diarrhoea, 
dysentery,  costiveness,  &c.  As  a  means  of  preventing  the 
greater  number  of  the  diseases  to  which  they  are  liable,  the 
following  rules  are  prescribed  in  the  Farmer''s  and  Grazier's 
Guide. 

1st.  Let  the  young  calf  suck  the  first  milk.  This  will 
cleanse  its  bowels,  and  prevent  costiveness. 

2d.  Let  it  suck  from  its  mother  at  least  two  months,  and 
then  wean  it  gradually. 

3d.  Let  its  first  food  be  such  as  is  easy  of  digestion,  and 
let  it  have  plenty  of  sweet  skimmed  milk  and  good  hay. 

4th.  Keep  it  very  clean,  well  rubbing  it  occasionally  with 
a  wisp  of  hay  or  straw. 

5th.  Keep  its  stable  clean,  and  perfectly  free  from  all  im- 
purities. 

6th.  Let  it  have  gentle  exercise  ;  the  best  will  be  follow- 
ing the  mother  in  the  meadow  or  pasture. 

7th.  Do  not  stint  it  either  in  good  food  or  good  drink,  and 
change  its  litter  often  enough  to  keep  it  clean,  sweet,  and 
dry. 


64  THE    COMPLETE    FARMEH 

OXEN.  Till  oxen  are  four  years  old  tliey  are  usually 
called  steers  ;  afterwards  oxen.  The  signs  of  a  good  ox,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Deane,  are  these  :  thick,  soft,  smooth,  and 
short  hair;  a  short  and  thick  head;  glossy,  smooth  horns; 
large  and  shaggy  ears ;  wide  forehead  ;  full,  black  eyes ; 
wide  nostrils  ;  black  lips  ;  a  thick  fleshy  neck  and  large 
shoulders ;  broad  reins ;  a  large  belly ;  thick  rump  and 
thighs  ;  a  straight  back  ;  a  long  tail,  well  covered  with  hair  ; 
short  and  broad  hoofs.  The  best  colors  are  brown,  dark  red, 
and  brindled.  When  an  ox  has  completed  his  eighth  year 
he  should  be  fattened. 

If  oxen  are  worked  in  the  yoke  in  wet  weather,  their  necks 
are  apt  to  become  sore.  To  prevent  this  a  little  tallow 
should  be  rubbed  on  the  parts  of  the  yoke  which  lie  upon 
their  necks,  and  also  on  the  bows. 

The  following  remarks  on  the  management  of  working 
oxen  are  from  the  N.  E.  Farmer,  vol.  vi.  p.  191. 

'  Do  not  retard  the  growth  of  your  beasts  of  draught,  en- 
danger their  health,  and  render  them  insignificant  in  the  eyes 
of  many,  by  working  them  hard  while  young.  But  the 
younger  they  are  inured  to  light  work,  the  more  docilf'  they 
will  generally  become. 

'  An  English  writer  recommends  carding  oxen,  and  says 
"  the  ox,  after  the  sensation  becomes  familiar,  receives  plea- 
sure from  the  operation,  and  will  momentarily  forego  his 
meal  to  receive  the  full  enjoyment.  His  feeder  perceives 
this,  and  brushes  the  part  which  gives  the  most  pleasure. 
The  ox  shows  his  gTatitude  by  wagging  his  tail ;  the  feeder 
in  return  calls  him  by  name,  and  ingratiates  himself  with 
him.  Thus  not  only  an  intimacy  but  a  mutual  affection  is 
formed,  which  at  once  gives  attention  to  the  keeper  and  do- 
cility to  the  ox,  and  renders  the  labors  of  both  pleasant." 

'  Their  labor  and  their  fodder  ought  to  be  proportioned, 
that  their  health  and  their  spirits  may  be  kept  in  full  tone. 
Their  coats  ought  to  be  sleek  ;  their  hides  loose  and  silky ; 
the  flank  should  fill  the  hand,  and  the  shoulder  handle  mel- 
low. If  they  be  overworked  or  underfed,  slugi_,ishness 
and  disease  will  inevitably  follow.  A  working  ox  ought  al- 
ways to  be  beef,  that  in  case  of  accident  he  may  be  fit  for  the 
table.' 

The  common  mode  of  workinsf  oxen  by  a  yoke  has  been 
condemned  by  many  agrici:ltural  writers.  Mr.  Cooper,  an 
Englishman,  according  to  Young's  Eastern  Tour,  used  col- 
lars on  oxen  as  on  horses,  except  that  they  were  buckled  on 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  65 

with  the  narrow  and  open  end  downward.  They  draw  in. 
harness  abreast  in  pairs,  single,  or  in  a  line,  and  loalk  as  fast 
as  horses.  Mr.  Bordley  said  he  '  saw  a  wagon  in  Pennsylva- 
nia drawn  by  two  bulls  and  two  oxen,  bridled  and  geered  in 
harness  and  collars.' 

It  appears  by  a  work  entitled  '  Letters  from  Cuba'  by  Dr. 
Abiel  Abbot,  that  in  managing  the  oxen  of  that  island,  the 
yoke  is  made  fast  to  the  horns,  '  near  the  root,  behind,  so 
that  it  does  not  play  backward  and  forward,  and  gives  to  the 
oxen  a  similar  but  better  chance  of  backing,  (as,  in  teamster's 
phrase,  it  is  called.)  I  have  been  astonished  at  the  power 
of  those  oxen  in  holding  back.  There  is  a  short  hill  in  one 
of  the  streets  of  this  city,  at  an  angle  nearly  of  forty-five  de- 
grees. Standing  at  the  foot  of  it,  I  saw  a  cart  and  oxen  ap- 
proaching at  the  top,  with  three  hogsheads  of  molasses,  and 
the  driver  sitting  on  the  forward  cask.  The  driver  did  not  so 
much  as  leave  his  perch  ;  the  oxen  went  straight  and  fear- 
less over  the  pitch  of  the  hill,  and  it  seemed  as  if  they  must 
be  crushed  to  death.  The  animals  squatted  like  a  dog,  and 
rather  slid  than  walked  to  the  bottom  of  the  hill.  Have  we 
any  animals  that  could  have  done  it  ?  And  if  they  could, 
have  we  any  docile  enough  to  have  done  it  with  the  driver 
in  the  cart  ?  Thus  superior  is  this  mode  of  yoking  in  hold- 
ing back  the  load  in  difficult  places. 

'  It  gives  them  still  more  decisive  advantage  in  drawing. 
A  fillet  of  canvas  is  laid  on  the  front  below  the  horns ;  and 
over  this  fillet  the  cords  pass,  and  the  animal  presses  against 
the  most  invulnerable  part  of  his  frame ;  his  head,  his  neck, 
his  whole  frame  are  exerted  in  the  very  manner  in  which  he 
exerts  his  mighty  strength  in  combat.  It  is  the  natural  way, 
therefore,  of  availing  yourself  of  this  powerful  and  patient 
animal  to  the  best  advantage.' 

A  writer  for  the  Genessee  Farmer  observes,  that  '  the  fre- 
quent abuse  of  our  laboring  animals  by  those  who  receive 
the  benefits  of  their  labors,  and  who  ought  in  return  to  treat 
them  mercifully,  has  often  given  me  great  pain.  I  have  em- 
ployed in  the  course  of  my  business  a  great  many  men  and 
teams,  both  with  oxen  and  horses,  and  I  never  yet  knew  a 
bawling,  noisy,  whipping  teamster  who  did  a  great  day's 
work ;  nor  have  I  scarcely  known  such  a  one  who  kept  a 
fat  team.  The  best  man  who  ever  did  me  any  labor  was  a 
good  substantial  farmer ;  his  oxen  were  always  fat,  and  spry 
as  colts;  he  would  never  hitch  Inem  to  any  thing  which  he 
knew  they  could  not  draw  ;  of  course  they  were  not  discou- 
6# 


66  THE    COMPLETE  FARMER 

raged ;  and  he  hardly  ever  spoke  to  them  louder  than  in  a 
low  tone  of  common  conversation.  He  would  frequently 
talk  to  them  soothingly,  and  encourage  them  when  he  had  a 
hard  job  on  hand,  which  was  often  the  case.  After  making 
a  heavy  pull  he  would  sometimes  pat  them  on  the  back,  but 
I  rarely  ever  knew  him  to  strike  or  worry  his  team.  He 
carried  a  slender  goad  with  a  short  lash  to  guide  them  with, 
and  a  mere  swing  of  the  whip  was  sufficient  for  his  purposes. 
I  have  known  several  such  persons  in  my  life,  and  I  do  not 
hesitate  to  say  that  any  person  who  so  manages  his  team 
will  get  more  labor  at  less  expense,  and  with  more  ease  to 
himself,  than  by  the  ordinary  bawling,  whipping  method  so 
much  practised  in  our  country.  All  the  difference  with  these 
people  is,  that  the  one  understands  and  studies  the  nature  and 
disposition  of  his  animals,  and  the  other  does  not.  "  An 
even  temper  and  a  steady  hand"  ought  to  be  the  teamster's 
motto,  the  world  over.' 

The  following  valuable  observations  on  the  subject  of 
breaking  steers  and  colts  are  extracted  from  a  communication 
written  for  the  New  England  Farmer,  by  Mr.  James  Walker, 
of  Fryeburgh,  Maine,  and  published  in  that  paper,  volume  xii. 
p.   113. 

'  I  call  my  young  cattle  cdves  till  they  are  one  year  old. 
I  have  a  little  yoke  made  with  a  staple  and  ring  in  it.  I 
tell  my  little  boys  to  yoke  up  their  calves  :  a  small  boy  can 
do  it,  and  it  is  quite  a  pastime  to  them;  they  being  so 
young,  are  not  so  strong  but  that  he  can  manage  them  with 
ease  ;  any  small  stick  or  twig  answers  to  drive  them  with, 
and  there  is  no  danger  of  the  boy  or  steers  being  hurt. 
When  he  can  drive  them  where  he  wishes  them  to  go,  which 
will  soon  be  the  case,  he  will  hitch  them  to  a  small  piece  of 
wood,  or  if  in  winter  put  them  to  a  hand-sled,  and  drive 
round  with  that ;  they  will  soon  become  docile.  There  is 
no  trouble  with  them  afterward,  especially  if  they  are  yoked 
a  few  times  the  second  winter ;  it  makes  them  fond  of  their 
mates.  Oxen  that  are  trained  when  young  are  much  more 
pliable  and  obedient,  which  adds  much  to  their  value  :  steers 
that  run  till  they  are  three  or  four  years  old  are  dangerous 
animals  to  encounter  with  ;  they  are  always  running  away 
with  the  cart  or  sled  whenever  there  is  a  chance  for  them, 
and  often  serious  injury  is  the  result.  I  would  not  recom- 
mend working  steers  hard  wyie  young,  as  it  would  prevent 
their  growth  :  there  is  a  diherence  between  working  them 
and  barely  trailing  them. 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  67 

'  Colts  I  begin  with  very  soon  after  they  are  foaled ;  the 
mare  should  be  bridled  and  led  to  the  door,  and  giver-  a  lit- 
tle salt.  When  the  colt  is  one  or  two  days  old,  take  him  by 
the  neck,  handle  him  gently  ;  he  is  then  so  young  that  he  is 
not  afraid,  if  his  dam  is  near  by  him ;  continue  this  practice, 
and  he  will  very  soon  become  fond  of  his  owner,  and  will 
come  on  purpose  to  be  handled  after  two  or  three  weeks. 
It  does  not  hurt  the  mare  or  the  colt  to  use  her  moderately. 
If  you  want  to  go  to  meeting  on  the  Sabbatli,  harness  the 
mare  into  the  chaise  or  wagon,  and  tie  the  colt  to  the  arm  of 
the  carriage  ;  he  may  be  a  little  obstinate  at  first,  but  in  go- 
ing a  few  rods  will  be  peaceable  and  very  orderly  ;  if  there 
are  many  other  horses  about,  your  colt  is  always  with  you  : 
if  you  uant  to  stop  at  a  place  any  time,  let  your  colt  loose; 
he  can  be  taken  again  without  difficulty,  and  before  you  start 
off  tie  your  colt  again ;  in  this  way  tnere  is  no  trouble  of 
the  colt  following  other  hore-es  away.  When  they  become 
old  Cxiough  for  service,  you  do  not  have  to  run  all  over  the 
pasture  for  the  horses  ;  they  can  always  be  taken  with  ease. 
Colts  trained  in  this  way  are  completely  halter  broken. 
When  you  begin  to  harness  them,  they  are  not  frightened  at 
the  noise  of  the  carriage  behind  them,  and  are  sooner  made 
quiet  in  the  harness.  It  has  been  a  common  saying  that  if 
colts  are  handled  when  they  arc  young,  it  depresses  their 
courage,  which  I  am  convinced  is  not  the  fact.  I  have 
raised  as  many  horses  as  most  farmers  of  my  age  in  this  vi- 
cinity, and  some  of  them  the  most  spirited  I  ever  saw.  The 
above  rales  I  have  practised  for  quite  a  number  of  years,  and 
can  recommend  them  to  others  with  confidence.  It  con- 
vinces me  of  the  truth  and  efficacy  of  a  rule  I  have  found  in 
an  old  book  I  have,  much  worn  by  usage,  although  yet 
whole — it  has  been  in  our  family  almost  a  hundred  years — 
which  says,  "  Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  he  should  go,  and 
when  he  is  old  he  will  not  depart  from  it."  Train  up  beasts 
while  young,  and  I  know  when  they  are  old  they  will  be 
serviceable  to  their  owners.' 

On  training  Oxen  to  back  a  Cart.  A  waiter  for  the  Maine 
Farmer,  with  the  signature  of  A  Teamster,  whose  communi- 
cation was  republished  in  the  N.  E.  Farmer,  vol.  xi.  p.  353, 
states  as  follows  : 

'  I  have  observed  that  very  little  if  any  attention  is  paid 
by  our  farmers  to  learn  their  steers  to  back  ;  but  as  they 
become  able  to  draw  a  very  considerable  load  forward,  they 
are  often  unmercifully  beaten  on  the  head  and  face  because 


68  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

they  will  not  back  a  cart  or  sled  with  as  large  a  load  as 
they  can  draw  forwards,  forgetting  that  much  pains  have 
been  taken  to  learn  them  to  draw"  well  forward,  but  none  to 
learn  them  to  push  backw^ard.  To  remedy  the  occasion  of 
this  thumping,  and  the  delay,  which  is  always  disagreeable, 
as  soon  as  I  have  learned  my  steers  to  be  handy,  as  it  is 
called,  and  to  draw^  forw^ard,  I  place  them  on  a  cart  where  the 
land  is  descending  in  a  small  degree.  In  this  situation  they 
will  soon  learn  with  ease  to  back  it ;  then  I  place  them  on 
level  land,  and  exercise  them  there;  then  I  learn  them  to 
back  a  cart  up  land  a  little  rising:  the  cart  having  no  load 
in  it  thus  far.  When  I  have  learned  them  to  stand  up  to  the 
tongue  as  they  ought  and  back  an  empty  cart,  I  next  either 
put  a  small  weight  in  the  cart,  or  take  them  where  the  land 
rises  faster,  which  answers  the  same  purpose.  Thus  in  a 
few  days  they  can  be  learned  to  back  well,  and  know  how  to 
do  it,  w^hich  by  a  little  use  afterwards  they  "vvill  never  forget. 
This  may  appear  of  little  consequence  to  some,  but  when  it 
is  remembered  how  frequently  we  w^ant  to  back  a  load  when 
we  are  at  work  with  our  cattle,  and  how  commodious  it  often 
is  to  have  our  cattle  back  well,  w^hy  should  we  not  learn 
them  for  the  time  w^hen  we  w^ant  them  thus  to  lay  out  their 
strength  ?  Besides,  it  saves  the  blows  and  vexation  often 
encountered,  which  is  considerable  when  one  is  in  haste. 
It  is  a  merciful  course  toAvards  our  brutes.  I  never  consider 
a  pair  of  oxen  well  broke  until  they  will  back  with  ease  any 
reasonable  load,  and  I  would  give  a  very  considerable  sum 
more  for  a  yoke  of  oxen  thus  tutored  than  for  a  yoke  not 
thus  trained.' 

Oxen  sometimes  contract  a  bad  habit  of  pulling  or  hauling 
against  each  other ;  and  sometimes  crowd  each  other,  so  as 
to  render  them  almost  entirely  useless  as  laborers.  It  is  said 
that  by  turning  them  out  to  feed  in  the  yoke  they  will  learn 
to  move  in  concert,  and  thus  be  broken  of  the  habits  of  pull- 
ing and  crowding. 

In  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Arts  the  following 
mode  of  training  oxen  to  the  draught  is  recommended :  '  Put 
a  broad  strap  round  their  necks,  fasten  one  end  to  a  large 
log  of  wood ;  permit  the  ox  to  drag  it  about  as  he  feeds  in 
his  pasture,  before  he  is  put  in  harness,  by  which  his  docility 
is  much  forwarded.'  If  a  yoke  of  oxen  were  fastened  to  a 
heavy  loaded  sled  or  drag,  placed  in  a  pasture,  and  the  oxen 
secured  in  such  a  manner  that  they  could  not  cast  or  injure 
themselves,  and  the  load  were  so  heavy  that  they  must  act 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


69 


in  concer*  to  move  it,  they  would  soon  learn  to  pull  together, 
and  be  true  to  the  yoke.  Having  eaten  the  grass  within 
reach  of  their  first  location,  they  would  of  necessity  ur.ite 
their  efforts  to  remove  their  load  to  a  fresh  spot,  and  would 
adopt  for  their  motto,  united  we  feed,  divided  we  starve. 

Diseases  of  Ca.ttle.  Our  limits  will  not  admit  of  our  be'ng 
very  copious  under  this,  head  ;  but  some  of  the  most  common 
ails  to  which  cattle  tLre  subject  shall  be  briefly  treated  of, 
and  the  remedies  prescribed. 

Cattle  are  apt  to  be  hoven  or  sivollen  in  consequence  of 
having  eaten  too  much  gr?en  succulent  food.  The  common 
remedy  for  this  disorder  has  been  to  stab  the  infected  animal 
with  a  penknife  or  other  sharp  instrument  under  the  short 
ribs,  and  put  into  the  orifice  a  tube  of  ivory,  elder,  a  quill, 
or  something  of  the  kind,  to  give  vent  to  the  confined  air. 
The  wound  is  then  dressed  with  some  sort  of  adhesive  plas- 
ter, such  as  Burgundy  pitch,  and  thus  in  gener-il  the  cure  is 
effected.  This,  however,  according  to  the  Grazier's  Qiddej 
is  a  bad  practice  ;  a  second  attack  becomes  more  difficult  to 
cure,  as  the  wound  adlieres  to  the  side,  and  every  repetition 
increases  the  danger. 

The  thirty-third  volume  oi  Young's  Annals  of  Agriculture 
prescribes  the  following  recipe  for  hoven  cattle,  which  it 
states  will  effect  a  cure  in  the  most  desperate  cases  in  half 
an  hour.  Take  three  quarters  of  a  pint  of  olive  oil,  one 
pint  of  melted  butter  or  hog's  lard ;  give  this  mixture  by 
means  of  a  horn  or  bottle,  and  if  it  does  not  produce  a  fa- 
vorable change  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  repeat  the  same 
quantity,  and  walk  the  animal  gently  about.  For  sheep  at- 
tacked with  this  malady  the  dose  is  from  a  wine-glass  and  a 
half  to  two  wine-glasses. 

The  following  lemedy  for  this  complaint  has  also  been  re- 
commended. Make  about  a  pint  of  lye,  either  with  hot  em- 
bers thrown  into  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water,  or  by  dis- 
solving therein  about  an  ounce  of  pot  or  pearl-ash,  and  turn 
it  down  the  throat  of  the  ox  or  cow  affected.  A  propor- 
tionably  less  quantity  will  answer  for  a  sheep.  This  is  said 
to  give  immediate  relief,  by  neutralizing  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  in  the  stomach  of  the  animal,  which  causes  the  swelling 
and  other  symptoms  of  the  complaint  to  subside. 

Besides  these  remedies,  flexible  tubes  and  canes,  with 
knobs  on  their  ends,  tarred  rope,  whip  handles,  Sec,  have 
been  used  to  force  a  passage  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach, 
to  let  the  confined  air  escape  upwards  from  the  trunk  of  the 


70  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

animal  affected.  Descriptions  of  some  of  these  instruments 
may  be  seen  in  the  Domestic  Encyclopedia,  vol.  i.  p.  409, 
410.  Loudon  likewise  observes,  that  '  the  flexible  tube  for 
the  relief  of  cattle  that  are  hoven  or  choked,  consists  of  a 
strong  leathern  tube,  about  four  feet  long  and  half  un  inch 
diameter,  with  a  leaden  nozzle,  pierced  with  holes  at  the  in- 
sertion end.  It  should  be  kept  in  every  farmery.  There  is 
a  similar  one  on  a  smaller  scale,  which  should  be  kept  by 
every  shepherd.' 

In  turning  cattle  or  sheep  into  fresh  and  rank  clover  oi 
lucerne,  care  should  be  taken  at  first  to  let  them  remain  but 
a  short  tiiiie  when  the  grass  is  dry,  and  then  turn  them  out 
again,  that  they  may  by  degrees  become  accustomed  to  the 
rich  herbage. 

Hoof-ail,  or  Hoof  Distemper.  A  writer  for  the  Massachu- 
setts Agricultural  Repository,  vol.  iv.  p.  339,  gives  some 
account  of  this  disorder,  from  whi^h  we  extract  the  following. 

'  Symptoms.  When  an  animal  is  at  all  lame,  its  foot  should 
be  carefully  felt.  The  first  indication  is  usually  an  uncom- 
mon degree  of  warmth,  and  a  soft  and  puffed  feel  of  the 
parts  immediatply  ponnected  with  the  slit  between  the  hoof, 
either  before  or  behind  the  foot,  and  generally  just  above  it. 
If  in  the  hind  foot,  and  not  easily  handled,  a  fulness  may 
generally  be  perceived,  by  standing  behind  the  animal,  and 
carefully  comparing  the  appearance  of  the  two  feet  betv/een 
the  dew-claws  and  the  hoofs,  (for  it  A'ery  rarely  commences 
its  attack  on  more  than  one  foot.)  In  the  fore  foot  it  gene- 
rally swells  forward;  and  in  taking  up  the  foot  the  slit  be- 
tween the  hoofs  will  generally  have  the  appearance  of  dry- 
ness, easily  distinguishable  to  a  person  used  to  cattle  ;  and 
the  animal  f  equently  licks  the  front  part  of  the  foot.  In- 
stances frequently  occur  of  sudden  and  extreme  lameness, 
without  any  appearance  of  heat  or  swelling  in  the  foot ;  and 
these  are  often  the  worst  cases  ;  but  one  symptom  rarely 
fails  to  accompany  the  disease,  which  is  extreme  restlessness 
and  appearance  of  anguish,  attended  with  loss  of  appetite 
and  flesh,  but  without  in  the  least  affecting  the  brightness  of 
the  eye,  and,  perhaps,  sometimes  unnaturally  increasing  it; 
but  the  eye  has  a  peculiar  cast.  As  a  general  rule  it  is 
safest  to  attribute  all  lameness  of  the  foot  which  cannot  be 
traced  to  a  sufficient  cause  to  the  hoof-ail.  Lameness  of  the 
foot  can  generally  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  leg,  hip, 
or  shoulder,  by  making  the  animal  step  over  a  stick  or  rail, 
and  carefully  watching  its  motions. 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  71 

'  Remedies.  The  foot  should  be  carefully  washed  and 
cleansed  and  thoroughly  examined,  to  be  sure  that  the  lame- 
ness does  not  arise  from  a  nail  casually  run  into  the  foot,  or 
a  prick  in  shoeing,  from  a  wound  from  a  stump  or  othc^' 
substance  between  the  hoofs,  (a  case  frequently  occurring.) 
If  no  appearance  occurs  of  any  break  in  the  skin,  while  tiie 
foot  is  still  wet  apply  as  near  as  may  be  to  the  centre  of  the 
slit  between  the  hoofs  from  one  to  three  grains  of  corrosive 
sublimate,  (reduced  to  a  fine  powder,)  the  dose  to  be  propor- 
tioned to  the  size  of  the  animal  and  the  violence  of  the  at- 
tack. Care  must  be  used  that  the  powder  is  put  completely 
in  this  slit,  for  it  is  a  very  strona^  poison,  and  the  animal  as 
soon  as  at  liberty  will  begin  to  lick  the  foot  if  a  sore  one. 
The  moisture  left  by  the  washing  makes  the  powder  adhere, 
and  the  effect  is  produced  in  a  very  short  time.  Some  pre- 
fer mixing  the  powder  with  hog's  lard,  which  answers  ;  but  is 
thought  less  powerful :  it  has  one  advantage,  however,  as 
being  less  dangerous  to  keen  in  a  house,  (for  no  one  takes 
salve  inwardly.)  Where  corrosive  sublimate  cannot  be  ob- 
tained, any  other  violent  stimulant  may  be  applied.  Com- 
mon salt  is  often  effectual  in  very  slight  attacks ;  but  it  is 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  lose  no  time.  The  applicc^tion 
is  to  be  repeated  every  twenty-four  hours  till  a  cure  is  effect- 
ed, or  till  the  foot  shows  unequivocal  signs  of  a  gathering 
which  will  break.' 

Loss  of  the  Cn.d.  Rumination,  or  the  chewing  of  the  cud, 
is  that  motion  of  the  rumex  or  first  stomach  by  which  the 
food  is  forced  back  into  the  mouth  to  be  perfectly  masticated. 
This  motion  is  not  sudden  or  violent,  like  that  of  vomiting; 
but  gradual  and  gentle,  when  the  animal  is  healthy.  When, 
therefore,  an  animal  ceases  to  perform  this  essential  act  of 
digestion,  it  is  an  evident  proof  that  the  stomach  is  out  of 
order ;  it  may  depend  on  the  state  of  the  first  stomach,  or  it 
may  proceed  from  the  third. 

Loudon  asserts  that  although  '  loss  of  the  cud  enters  into 
the  list  of  most  of  cow  leeches'  diseases,  it  is  less  a  disease 
than  a  symptom  of  some  other  affection  ;  indeed  it  is  evident 
that  any  attack  suflicient  to  destroy  the  appetite  will,  gene- 
rally, occasion  the  loss  of  the  cud.  It  is  possible,  however, 
that  an  occasional  local  affection,  or  paralysis  of  the  paunch, 
may  occur,  particularly  when  it  is  distended  with  unhealthy 
substances,  as  acorns  crab-apples,  the  tops  of  some  of  the 
woody  shrubs,  &;c.  The  treatment  in  such  cases  consists  in 
stimulating  the  stomach  by  tonics,  aloes,  pepper,  and  gin, 


72  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

mixed.  Though  these  as  liquids  may  not  enter  the  stomacb 
in  common  cases,  yet  in  this  disease  or  unpaired  action  of 
the  rumex  they  will  enter  there.' 

Mr.  Lawrence,  an  English  writer,  says,  in  loss  of  cud, 
'  Let  the  animal  fast  some  time,  then  give  a  warm  bran  or 
pollard  mash,  with  good  hay  and  warm  water  with  salt. 
This  treatment  alone  may  succeed  with  patience,  even  should 
the  maw  be  obstructed  with  acorns  or  crab-apples.  An  aloes* 
tincture  made  with  brandy  and  ginger,  or  capsicum,  [red 
pepper]  might  be  of  use  in  this  case.  After  conquering  the 
obstruction,  bitter  infusions  made  of  camomile,  hoarhound, 
oak  bark,  <fec.  in  beer  may  be  required,  as  restoratives,  al- 
though, perhaps,  good  dry  nourishing  food  will  have  an 
equally  good  effect. 

Horn-ail.  or  Horn  Distemper.  '  In  the  spring,  cattle  which 
have  been  poorly  kept  through  the  winter  arc  subject  to  a 
wasting  of  the  pith  of  the  horn,  which  is  usually  called  the 
horn  distemper.  It  is  sometimes  in  one  horn  only  and  some- 
times in  both.  The  indications  of  the  disease  are  coldness 
of  the  horn,  dullness  of  the  eyes,  sluggishness,  want  of  appe- 
tite, and  a  disposition  to  lie  down.  When  the  brain  is  af- 
fected, the  animal  will  toss  its  head,  groan,  and  exhibit  indi- 
cations of  great  pain. 

To  cure  the  disease  Dr.  Deane  directed  to  bore  a  hoJe  with 
a  nail  gimblet  into  the  lower  part  of  the  horn,  through  which 
the  foul  matter  may  be  discharged.  By  this  boring,  which 
should  be  nearly  horizontal,  or  in  the  depending  part  of  the 
horn,  and  two  or  three  inches  from  the  nead  of  the  animal, 
the  cure  is  sometimes  completed.  When  it  proves  other- 
wise, a  mixture  of  rum  and  honey  with  myrrh  and  aloes 
should  be  thrown  into  the  horn  with  a  syringe,  and  be  seve- 
ral times  repeated  if  the  disease  continue. 

Lovett  Peters,  Esq.  of  Westborough,  Massachusetts,  in  a 
communication  published  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol. 
v^"i.  page  194,  give?  the  following  recipe  for  curing  this 
disease,  which  he  observes  was  furnished  him  by  an  aged 
friend,  and  successfully  applied  to  '  a  cow  taken  with  horn- 
ail  to  that  degree  that  she  had  nearly  stopped  eating,  and 
from  giving  a  large  quantitj^  of  milk  had  become  nearly  dry.' 

'  Take  of  salt  one  half-pin+,  of  soot  one  half-pint,  of  black 
pepper  one  table-spoonful ;  make  all  fine,  and  give  one  cr 
two  spoonfuls  at  a  time,  night  and  morning.  It  is  easily 
done  by  drawing  the  tongue  out  of  the  mouth  with  the  hand, 
and  putting  the  spoon  as  far  down  as  it  will  reach,  then  let 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  73 

go  tLe  tongne,  and  keep  up  the  nose,  and  it  will  all  go  down.' 
Mr.  Peters  says,  '  1  followed  the  directions,  and  in  two  days 
my  cow  was  better  ;  and  in  a  week  was  perfectly  well.  The 
same  may  not  cure  in  all  cases  of  horn-ail,  as  my  informant 
said  it  would,  but  it  is  worth  the  trial. 

It  should  seem,  however,  as  Mr.  Peters  suggested,  that  the 
above-mentioned  remedy  is  n'^t  infallible.  Mr,  Thomas  Ha- 
zen,  in  a  communication  published  in  the  New  England  Far- 
mer, vol.  vii.  p.  234,  states  that  he  tried  it  without  success ; 
but,  by  the  advice  of  a  large  owner  of  cattle,  he  freely  ap- 
plied spirits  of  turpentine  to  an  ox  in  high  flesh,  but  afflicted 
with  the  horn-ail,  on  the  top  of  the  head  along  the  roots  of 
the  horns,  for  a  number  of  days.  The  ox  soon  began  to  feed 
well,  and  in  a  few  weeks  was  sold  for  market.  It  is  a  severe 
remedy,  throwing  the  animal  into  extreme  agony.' 

Dr.  Cooper,  in  the  lost  Philadelphia  edition  of  WillicK's 
Domestic  EncyclGpedia,  directs,  For  the  hollow  horn,  saw  off 
the  diseased  part ;  dress  with  turpentine ;  keep  the  animal 
warm,  and  do  not  starve  him.  It  is  a  disease  owing  to  want 
of  food  and  exposure  to  cold. 

Remedy  for  Cattle  when  choked  hy  Roots  or  other  sub- 
stances. Mr.  Joseph  Wingate,  of  Maine,  in  a  communica- 
tion for  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  iii.  page  £7,  says, 
that  every  farmer  should  have  a  rope,  which  is  to  be  put 
d^wn  into  any  animal's  throat  when  choked  with  any  hard 
substance,  such  as  a  turnip,  potato,  or  an  ear  of  corn.  '  I 
have  used  this  rope,  and  never  found  the  least  difficulty  in 
g'ving  immediate  relief.  Many  cattle  have  died  for  the  want 
of  it,  and  many  have  been  killed  outright  by  using  other 
means.  Take  an  old  tarred  rope,  six  feet  lon_;.  Let  it 
be  served,  [strongly  wound  round  with  tv^ine]  and,  when 
finished,  be  one  inch  in  diameter.  When  put  down  the 
throat  it  should  be  pushed  gently  down  four  feet  and  a  half 
into  a  cow  or  an  ox.  In  cold  weathar  it  is  stiff  enough, 
but  in  warm  weatheY  it  should  be  wet  with  cold  water  befoiO 
it  is  rsed.' 

Mr.  E.  Williams,  of  Westford,  New  York,  in  New  Eng- 
land Farmer,  vol.  iii.  p,  81,  directs  to  an  easier  method  to  re- 
lieve th  complaint  :  'It  is  merely  to  pour  down  the  throat 
one  quart  of  very  strong  soap  suds.  I  have  seen  it  tried  in 
numerous  instances,  and  invariably  with  the  best  effect.  It 
aifords  instantaneous  relief.' 
7 


74  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

BARNS.  It  is  a  common  practice,  and  with  many  a 
general  rule,  to  build  a  farm-house  adjoining,  and  perhaps 
in  contact  with  the  sheds,  barns,  and  other  outhouses. 
When  the  buildings  are  thus  all  situated  in  one  clump,  if 
one  takes  fire,  the  whole  will,  probably,  be  consumed.  Be- 
sides, it  is  disagreeable  and  unwholesome  to  l^ive  too  near 
manure  heaps,  and  as  it  were  in  the  midst  of  your  herds  of 
cattle  and  swine.  The  barn  should,  therefore,  be  placed  at 
a  convenient  distance  from  the  dwelling-house  and  other 
buildings,  but  as  near  as  may  be  without  danger  of  fire,  or 
annoyance  from  the  effluvia  of  manure  heaps.  Too  low  a 
spot  will  be  miry  in  spring  and  fall.  Too  high  an  eminence 
will  be  inconvenient  for  drawing  in  loads,  and  on  account  of 
saving  and  making  manure.  If  other  circumstances  permit, 
it  may  be  best  to  place  a  barn  in  such  a  manner  as  to  de- 
fend the  dwelling-house  from  the  force  of  the  coldest  winds. 

The  size  of  the  barn  should  be  proportionate  to  the  pro- 
duce of  the  farm ;  for  in  this  country,  where  building  is  not 
expensive,  all  the  hay  and  grain  should  be  placed  under 
cover.  It  is  a  bad  practice  to  leave  hay  in  stacks,  in  the 
meadows  where  it  is  cut,  to  be  there  foddered  out  to  the  cat- 
tle in  the  course  of  the  winter.  By  this  mode  of  manage- 
ment the  manure  is  almost  lost.  The  ground  under  and 
near  the  stack  receives  some  benefit  from  the  droppings  of 
the  cattle,  the  litter,  hay-seeds,  &c.  of  the  stack.  But  this 
benefit  is  trifling,  as  the  sun,  air,  and  rains  soon  exhale  and 
wash  away  the  manure,  which  beinpr  left  on  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  is  soon  given  to  the  winds  and  the  waters. 

The  farmers  of  the  older  parts  of  Pennsylvania,  generally, 
build  very  large  barns,  and  to  prevent  the  hay  or  grain  from 
heating  in  a  large  mow,  four  poles  or  pieces  of  timber  are 
set  up  in  the  middle,  so  as  to  form  within  them  a  square 
space  of  about  two  feet.  The  poles  are  braced  by  cross- 
pieces  at  certain  distances.  Through  the  aperture  thus 
made  the  extra  moisture  in  the  hay  or  grain  has  a  chance  to 
escape,  so  as  to  prevent  its  being  mow-burnt.  Their  barns 
are  usually  built  of  stone,  and  in  the  walls  a  large  number 
of  small  holes  are  made  for  the  admission  of  air.  Their  cat- 
tle are  chiefly  all  housed,  and  their  dung  is  under  cover,  when 
thrown  oat  of  the  stables,  to  prevent  its  being  injured  by 
the  rains.  The  roofs  of  the  barns  are  usually  painted,  to 
preserve  them  against  the  weather. 

'  The  floor  of  the  barn  should  be  kept  tight,  so  that  the 
grain  cannot  fall  through  in  threshing ;  and  for  this  purpose 


AND  rural'  economist.  75 

it  should  have  a  layer  of  thin  boards  under  it.  It  is  most 
advisable  also  to  have  a  place  set  apart  in  the  barn  for  the 
purpose  of  storing  away  the  grain  after  it  is  threshed.  The 
bins  for  the  grain  should  be  made  of  hard  plank,  to  prevent 
the  rats  and  mice  from  eating  through  them,  and  should  have 
lids,  which  can  be  fastened  down  wdth  padlocks.' — Farmer^s 
Assistant. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  a  large  barn  built  in  the 
town  of  Hancock,  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  by  the 
family  of  Shakers  located  in  that  place.  It  was  originally 
published  in  the  Middletown  (Conn.,)  Sentinel,  and  repub- 
lished in  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  v.  p.  215. 

The  barn  is  built  on  ground  inclining  southw^ardly,  in  a 
perfect  circle,  and  is  ninety  feet  in  diameter  across  it  from 
side  to  side.  The  walls  are  of  stone,  twenty-tv\^o  feet  in 
height,  of  a  suitable  thickness,  and  laid  in  lime,  and  well 
pointed  on  each  side.  Round  the  barn,  on  the  inner  side, 
are  stables,  forming  a  circle,  the  manger  within,  and  suitable 
places  over  it  to  throw  or  feed  dow^n  the  hay  ;  the  stable  and 
manger  occupy  about  twelve  feet,  and  are  eight  feet  high; 
the  stables  open  to  and  from  several  different  barn-j^ards,  in 
order  to  make  as  many  and  such  divisions  of  stock  as  they 
]:?ve  thought  proper.  The  covering  of  the  stables  forms  the 
barn  floor,  w^hich  also  extends  round  the  barn.  There  is  but 
one  large  door-way  for  entrance  with  teams  and  loads  ;  this 
is  from  the  northern  side,  from  an  offset  or  causeway,  eight 
feet  above  the  base,  and  of  course  fourteen  feet  below  the 
eaves.  The  cart  or  wagon  that  enters  with  a  load  makes  the 
whole  circuit  of  the  floor,  and  after  unloading  comes  out  at 
the  same  door  ;  thus  eight  or  ten  teams  with  their  loads  can 
occupy  the  floor  at  one  time  in  unloading,  and  not  hinder  each 
other.  Within  this  circle  of  the  stables  and  barn  floor  is  an 
area  or  bay,  as  it  is  usually  called,  which  is  filled  with  hay, 
dec,  which  must  be  over  sixty  feet  in  diameter.  This  is 
pitched  ill  and  on  from  any  side  or  place  most  convenient,  or 
where  w^anted. 

The  roof  comes  to  a  point  at  the  centre,  and  sheds  oft' the 
rain  all  round,  something  similar  to  an  umbrella.  It  is  sup- 
ported from  the  inner  circle  of  the  barn  floor.  The  roof 
boards  are  laid  up  and  down,  which,  by  a  transverse  sawing 
of  the  log,  were  all  brought  to  a  point,  and  then  shingled 
round  in  the  usual  mode. 

A  writer  for  the  New  England  Farmer,  whose  communi- 
cation was  published,  vol.  iii.  p.   81,  describes  'a  barn  of 


76  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

ordinary  size,  and  the  main  part  of  it  built  in  the  usual  shape, 
hut  a  good  deal  neater  and  tighter.  The  bays  were  upon 
each  side  of  the  floor,  and  the  bottoms  of  them  were  sunk 
eight  feet  below  it.  Tliis  gave  room  for  a  large  quantity  of 
hay  below  the  floor.  The  large  doors  were  towards  the 
south,  to  admit  the  sun,  when  necessary,  with  a  small  door 
in  one  of  the  large  ones  to  enter  at  when  the  weather  was 
windy,  and  made  it  dangerous  to  open  the  large  doors. 
Barns  ought  always  to  have  a  small  door  to  use  in  the  win- 
ter, when  you  must  often  be  in  and  out.  There  were  twelve 
squares  of  glass  arranged  over  the  door,  to  admit  the  light 
when  the  large  doors  were  shut ;  besides  a  small  window  in 
each  of  the  gable  ends,  very  rear  the  ridge,  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. Under  the  floor  was  a  convenient  cellar,  in  which 
were  kept  potatoes,  and  all  kinds  of  vegetables  for  green  fod- 
der in  the  winter.  The  ceilar  was  a  very  warm  one,  and 
well  lighted  with  two  windows.  This  cellar  struck  me  as 
being  the  most  useful  apartment  in  the  whole  establishment, 
and  I  wonder  that  all  farmers  do  not  have  one.  There  you 
may  keep  as  many  turnips,  cabbages,  potatoes,  &;c.,  as  you 
please,  and  they  are  always  handy  to  fodder  out  in  the  sta- 
ble to  yoar  cattle ;  and  the  cattle  need  scarcely  go  out  of 
the  stable  in  a  month. 

'  The  yard  was  well  watered  by  an  aqueduct,  and  a  trougK 
on  the  south  side  of  the  barn  was  kept  always  full.  Upon 
the  north  or  back  side  of  the  barn  were  the  stables  :  they 
were  built  in  one  building,  and  joined  to  the  main  part,  about 
twenty-five  feet  in  width,  thirty  feet  long,  and  twelve  or  four- 
teen feet  high.  A  door  led  from  the  barn  into  it,  besides 
another  from  without  upon  the  east  side,  where  the  cattle 
were  admitted  from  the  yard.  A  floor  was  laid  overhead, 
at  the  distance  of  seven  feet  from  the  lower  one.  The  stalls 
were  arranged  on  each  side  of  the  building,  so  that  the  cattle 
stood  with  their  heads  towards  the  outside  of  the  building, 
leaving  a  space  in  the  middle  to  pass. 

'  In  foddering,  the  hay  was  pitched  from  the  bay  in  the 
barn  through  a  window,  over  the  stables,  and  then  put  down 
into  racks  ;  very  little  hay  could  be  wasted  in  this  way,  and 
the  boys  could  be  trusted  with  the  foddering.  The  manure 
made  in  the  stable  was  put  down  through  the  floor  into 
another  cellar,  large  enough  to  admit  of  a  cart  and  team  to 
take  it  away.' 

A  report  of  the  committee  on  farms,  in  the  county  of 
Essex,  for  the  year  1824,  states,  that  colonel  Moses  Newhall, 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  77 

in  West  Newbury,  '  has  lately  built  a  barn,  which  for  con- 
venience and  durability  of  construction  is  worthy  of  much 
praise.  It  is  calculated  better  for  the  farmer's  use  than  any 
one  we  have  seen.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  during 
the  haying  season,  the  most  busy  season  with  the  farmer,  its 
superior  conveniences  will  save  at  least  the  labor  of  one  man 
on  the  farm.  It  is  about  eighty  feet  in  length,  thirty-four 
feet  in  width,  and  twenty  feet  post.  It  has  two  floors,  one 
eight  feet  above  the  other  ;  on  the  upper  of  which  the  hay  is 
carried  in.  Mr.  Newhall  has  favored  the  committee  with  a 
plan  of  it  for  the  benefit  of  the  society.' 

The  Shakers  of  Harvard,  Massachusetts,  have  built  a  barn, 
which  is  probably  larger  than  any  other  structure  of  the  kind 
in  the  United  States.  The  dimensions,  we  are  told,  are  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length,  and  forty-five  in  luidth.  It 
is  four  stories  in  height,  and  the  calculation  is  to  drive  in  on 
the  upper  floors,  from  the  hill  side,  and  pitch  the  hay  down, 
thus  rendering  much  hard  labor  easy. 

Barn-Yards.  The  following  '  Remarks  on  the  Construc- 
tion and  Management  of  Cattle  Yards'  are  from  the  pen  of 
judge  Buel,  of  Albany. 

Vegetables,  like  animals,  cannot  thrive  or  subsist  without 
food ;  and  upon  the  quantity  and  quality  of  this  depends  the 
health  and  vigor  of  the  vegetable,  as  well  as  of  the  animal. 
Both  subsist  upon  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  both  may  be 
surfeited  with  excess,  both  may  be  injured  by  food  not 
adapted  to  their  habits,  their  appetites,  or  their  digestive 
powers.  A  hog  will  receive  no  injury,  but  great  benefit,  from 
free  access  to  a  heap  of  corn  or  wheat,  where  a  horse  or  cow 
will  be  apt  to  destroy  themselves  by  excess.  The  goat 
will  thrive  upon  the  boughs  and  bark  of  trees,  where  the  hog 
would  starve.  The  powerful,  robust  maize  will  repay,  in 
the  increase  of  its  grain,  for  a  heavy  dressing  of  strong  dung; 
for  which  the  more  delicate  wheat  will  requite  you  with 
very  little  but  straw.  The  potato  feeds  ravenously,  and 
grows  luxuriantly,  upon  the  coarsest  litter ;  while  many  of 
the  more  tender  exotics  will  thrive  only  on  food  upon  which 
fermentation  has  exhausted  its  powers.  But  here  the  analo- 
gy stops :  for  while  the  food  of  the  one  is  consumed  in  a 
sound,  healthy,  and  generally  solid  state,  the  food  of  the 
other,  before  it  becomes  aliment,  must  undergo  the  process 
of  putrefaction  or  decomposition,  and  be  reduced  to  a  liquid 
or  aeriform  state. 

I  have  gone  into  the  analogy  between  animals  and  vege- 
7^ 


78  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

tables  thus  far,  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  our  farmers  the 
importance  of  saving,  and  of  applying  the  food  of  their  vege- 
tables with  the  same  care  and  economy  that  they  do  the 
food  of  their  animals.  How  scrupulously  careful  is  the  good 
husbandman  of  the  produce  of  his  farm  destined  to  nourish 
and  fatten  his  animals ;  and  yet  how  often  careless  of  the 
food  which  can  alone  nourish  and  mature  his  plants:  while 
his  fields  are  gleaned,  and  his  grain,  hay,  and  roots  carefully 
housed,  and  economically  dispensed  to  his  animals,  the  food 
of  his  vegetables  is  suffered  to  waste  on  every  part  of  his 
farm.  Stercoraries  we  have  none.  The  urine  of  the  stock, 
which  constitutes  a  moiety  of  the  manure  of  animals,  is  all 
lost.  The  slovenly  and  wasteful  practice  of  feeding  at  stacks 
in  the  fields,  where  the  sole  of  the  grass  is  broken,  the  fodder 
wasted,  and  the  dung  of  little  effect,  is  still  pursued.  And, 
finally,  the  little  manure  which  does  accumulate  in  the  yards, 
is  suffered  to  lie  till  it  has  lost  full  half  of  its  fertilizing  pro- 
perties, or  rotted  the  sills  of  the  barn  ;  when  it  is  injudiciously 
applied,  or  the  barn  removed  to  get  clear  of  the  nuisance. 
Again :  none  but  a  slothful  farmer  will  permit  the  flocks  of 
his  neighbors  to  rob  his  own  of  their  food  ;  yet  he  often  sees, 
but  with  feeble  efforts  to  prevent  it,  his  plants  smothered  by 
pestiferous  weeds,  and  plundered  of  the  food  which  is  essen- 
tial to  their  health  and  vigor.  A  weed  consumes  as  much  food 
as  a  useful  plant.  This,  to  be  sure,  is  the  dark  side  of  the 
picture;  yet  the  original  may  be  found  in  every  town,  and 
in  almost  every  neighborhood. 

Is  it  surprising  that  under  such  management  our  arable 
grounds  should  grow  poor,  and  refuse  to  labor  its  accustom- 
ed reward  ?  Can  it  be  considered  strange,  that  those  who 
thus  neglect  to  feed  their  plants  should  feel  the  evil  of  light 
purses,  as  well  as  of  light  crops?  Constant  draining  or 
evaporation,  without  returning  any  thing,  would  in  time 
exhaust  the  ocean  of  its  waters.  A  constant  cropping  of  the 
soil,  without  returning  any  thing  to  it,  will  in  like  manner 
exhaust  it  of  its  vegetable  food,  and  gradually  induce  sterility. 
Neither  sand,  clay,  lime,  or  magnesia,  which  are  the  elements 
of  all  soils,  nor  any  combination  of  part  or  all  of  them,  is 
alone  capable  of  producing  healthy  plants.  It  is  the  animal 
and  vegetable  matter  accumulated  upon  its  bosom,  or  which 
art  deposits  there,  with  the  auxiliary  aid  of  these  materials 
diffused  in  the  atmosphere,  that  enables  the  earth  to  teem 
with  vegetable  life,  and  yield  its  tribute  to  man  and  beast. 

I  will  now  suggest  a  cheap  and  practicable  mode  of  pro- 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


7& 


tiding  food  for  vegetables,  commensurate  to  the  means  of 
every  farmer  of  ordinary  entcrprize ;  and  that  my  suggestions 
may  not  be  deemed  theoretical,  I  will  add,  that  1  '  practise 
what  I  preach.' 

The  cattle  yard  should  be  located  on  the  south  side  of, 
and  adjoining  the  barn.  Sheds,  substantial  stone  walls,  or 
close  board  fences,  should  be  erected  at  least  on  the  east  and 
west  sides,  to  shelter  the  cUtle  from  cold  winds  and  storms; 
the  size  proportioned  to  the  stock  to  be  kept  in  it.  Exca- 
vate the  centre  in  a  concave  form,  placing  the  earth  removed 
upon  the  edges  or  lowest  sides,  leaving  the  borders  ten  or 
twelve  feet  broad,  of  a  horizortal  lev^el,  to  feed  the  stock  up- 
on, and  from  two  to  five  feet  higher  than  the  centre.  This 
may  be  done  with  a  plough  and  scraper,  or  shovel  and  hand- 
barrow,  after  the  ground  is  broken  up  with  the  plough.  I 
used  the  former,  and  was  employed  a  day  and  a  half,  with 
two  hands  and  a  team,  in  fitting  two  to  my  mind.  When 
the  soil  is  not  sufficiently  compact  to  hold  water,  the  bottom 
should  be  bedded  with  six  or  eight  inches  of  clay,  well  beat 
down,  and  covered  with  gravel  or  sand. '  This  last  labor  is 
seldom  required,  except  where  the  ground  is  very  porous. 
My  yards  are  constructed  on  a  small  loam,  resting  on  a  clay 
subsoil.  Here  should  be  annually  deposited,  as  they  can  be 
conveniently  collected,  the  weeds,  coarse  grass,  and  brakes 
of  the  farm ;  and  also  the  pumpkin  vines  and  potato  tops. 
The  quantity  of  these  upon  a  farm  is  very  great,  and  are 
collected  and  brought  to  the  yard  with  little  trouble  by  the 
teams  returning  from  the  fields.  And  here  also  should  be 
fed  out,  or  strewed  as  litter,  the  hay,  stalks,  and  husks  of  In- 
dian corn,  pea  and  bean  haulm,  and  the  straw  of  grain  not 
wanted  in  the  stables.  To  still  farther  augment  the  mass, 
leached  ashes  and  swamp  earth  may  be  added  to  advantage. 
These  materials  will  absorb  the  liquid  of  the  yard,  and,  be- 
coming incorporated  with  the  excrementitious  matter,  double 
or  treble  the  ordinary  quantity  of  manure.  During  the  con- 
tinuance of  frost  the  excavation  gives  no  inconvenience  ;  and 
when  the  weather  is  soft,  the  borders  afford  ample  room  for 
the  cattle.  In  this  way,  the  urine  is  saved,  and  the  waste 
inciaent  to  rains,  &;c.  prevented.  The  cattle  should  be  kept 
constantly  yarded  in  winter,  except  when  let  out  to  water, 
and  the  yard  frequently  replenished  with  dry  litter.  Upon 
this  plan,  from  ten  to  twelve  loads  of  unfermented  manure 
maybe  obtained  every  spring  for  each  animal;  and  if  the 
stable  manure  is  spread  over  the  yard,  the  quality  of  the 


80  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

dung  will  be  improved,  and  the  quantity  proportionably  in- 
creased. Any  excess  of  liquid  that  may  remain  after  the 
dung  is  removed  in  the  spring,  can  be  profitably  applied  to 
grass,  grain,  or  garden  crops.  It  is  used  extensively  in 
Flanders,  and  in  other  parts  of  Europe. 

Having  explained  my  method  of  procuring  and  preserving 
the  food  of  vegetables,  I  will  proceed  to  state  my  practice  in 
feeding  or  applying  it.  It  is  given,  every  spring,  to  such 
hoed  crops  as  will  do  well  upon  coarse  food,  (my  vegetable 
hogs  and  goats.)  These  are  corn,  potatoes,  ruta  baga,  beans, 
and  cabbages.  These  consume  the  coarser  particles  of  the 
manure,  which  would  have  been  lost  during  the  summer  in 
the  yard;  while  the  plough,  harrow,  and  hoe  eradicate  the 
weeds  which  spring  from  the  seeds  it  scatters.  The  finer 
parts  of  the  food  are  preserved  in  the  soil,  to  nourish  the 
small  grains  which  follow.  The  dung  is  spread  upon  the 
land  as  evenly  as  possible,  and  immediately  turn3d  under 
with  the  plough.  It  is  thereby  better  distributed  for  the 
next  crop,  and  becomes  intimately  mixed  and  incorporated 
with  the  soil  by  subsequent  tillage.  Thus,  upon  the  data 
which  I  feel  warranted  in  assuming,  a  farmer  who  keeps 
twenty  horses  and  neat  cattle  will  obtain  from  his  yards  and 
stables,  every  spring,  two  hundred  loads  of  manure,  besides 
what  is  made  in  summer,  and  the  product  of  his  hogsty. 
With  this  he  may  manure  annually  ten  or  twelve  acres  of 
corn,  potatoes,  &c.,  and  manure  it  well.  And  if  a  proper 
rotation  of  crops  is  adopted,  he  will  be  able  to  keep  in  good 
heart,  and  progressively  to  improve,  sixty  acres  of  tillage 
land,  so  that  each  field  shall  be  manured  once  every  four  or 
five  years,  on  the  return  of  the  corn  and  potato  crop. 


DAIRY.  The  celebrated  Arthur  Young  has  the  follow- 
ing remarks  on  this  subject. 

'  Unless  the  farmer  has  a  very  diligent  and  industrious 
wife,  who  sees  minutely  to  her  dairy,  or  a  most  honest,  dili- 
gent, and  careful  housekeeper  to  do  it  for  him,  he  will  assur- 
edly lose  money  by  his  dairy  ;  trusted  to  common  servants, 
it  will  not  pay  charges.  The  dairymaid  must  be  up  every 
morning  at  four  o'clock,  or  she  will  be  backward  in  her 
business.  At  five  the  cows  must  be  milked,  and  there  rrust 
be  milkers  enough  to  finish  by  six.  The  same  rule  must  be 
observed  in  the  evening. 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  81 

*  In  making  butter  the  dairymaids  are  particularly  atten- 
tive to  one  circumstance,  that  tliere  must  be  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  sour  in  the  cream,  either  natural  or  artificial,  cr 
they  cannot  insure  a  good  churning  of  butter  ;  some  keep  a 
little  of  the  old  cream  for  that  purpose  ;  others  use  a  little 
runnet ;  and  some  a  little  lemon  juice.' 

In  order  to  determine  which  cow's  milk  is  best  for  cream, 
it  has  been  recommended  to  let  the  milk  of  each  be  put  by 
itself,  and  churn  each  separately. 

The  properties  requisite  in  a  dairy-house  are,  that  it  be 
cool  in  summer  and  moderately  warm  in  winter,  so  as  to 
preserve  nearly  the  same  temperature  throughout  the  year, 
which,  according  to  Loudon,  should  be  about  forty -five  de- 
grees. A  northern  exposure,  as  much  under  the  shade  of 
trees  as  possible,  is  to  be  preferred.  A  well  constructed  but- 
ter dairy,  says  Loudon,  should  consist  of  three  apartments ; 
a  milk  house,  a  churning  house,  v.'ith  proper  boiler,  as  well 
as  other  conveniences  for  scalding  and  washing  the  imple- 
ments, and  a  room  to  keep  them  in,  and  for  drying  and  airing 
them,  when  the  weather  will  not  permit  of  its  being  done 
without  doors.  The  cheese  dairy  should  likewise  consist  of 
three  apartments  :  a  milk  house,  a  scalding  and  pressing 
house,  and  a  salting  house.  To  these  should  be  added  a 
cheese  room,  or  loft,  which  may  with  great  propriery  be  made 
above  the  dairy.  This  is,  however,  generally  separate  from 
the  dairy.  But  a  milk  dairy  requires  only  a  good  milk 
house,  and  a  room  for  scalding,  cleaning,  and  airing  the 
utensils. 

A  daily  for  tlie  private  use  of  any  farmer  or  family  need 
not  be  large,  and  may  very  economically  be  form.ei  in  a 
thick-walled  dry  cellar,  so  situated  as  to  have  windows  on 
two  sides  ;  the  north  and  east  in  preference  for  ventilation: 
and  in  order  that  these  windows  may  the  better  exclude  cold 
in  winter  and  heat  in  summer,  they  should  be  fitted  with 
double  sashes,  and  on  the  outside  of  the  oiter  sash  should 
be  a  fixed  frame  of  close  wire  netting  or  haircloth,  to  exclude 
flies  and  other  insects.^ 

On  Making  and  Preserving  Butter.  The  dairy-house 
should  be  kept  neat,  should  not  front  the  south,  south-east, 
or  south-west.  An  apartment  in  a  sweet  and  well  ventilated 
cellar  will  answer  a  good  purpose  to  keep  milk  and  cream  in. 

*  For  several  different  plans  of  dairy  houses,  see  Loudon's  Enc.  of 
Agr.  Par.  6300,  &cc. 


82  THE    UOIMPLETE    FARMER 

Cheeses  should  not  be  set  to  dry  in  the  same  room  where 
your  iiiiJk  is  set,  for  they  communicate  an  acid  matter  to  the 
surrounding  air,  which  will  have  a  tendency  to  make  the 
nnilk  sour.  The  milk  room  and  cheese  room  should  therefore 
be  separate  apartments.  It  will  be  well  to  place  your  milk 
room,  if  possible,  ov^er  a  spring  or  brook,  near  the  dwelling- 
house  ;  and  you  may  have  a  stone  floor,  and  channels  in  the 
floor  to  pass  the  water  round  near  the  inside  of  the  walls. 
Into  these  channels  the  pans  may  be  set,  filled  with  milk, 
and  surrounded  by  water.  If  water  could  be  introduced 
into  the  milk  room  so  as  to  fall  from  some  height  on  the 
pavement,  it  would  likewise  prove  advantageous,  as  the 
waterfall  and  the  evaporation  it  causes  will  contribute  to 
preserve  the  air  continually  pure,  fresh,  and  cool.  As  the 
milk  itself  when  brought  in  warm  will  naturally  tend  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  milk  room  too  high,  it  is  recommend- 
ed to  have  an  ice-house  attached  to  the  dairy,  especially 
where  the  advantage  of  a  current  of  water  cannot  be  obtain- 
ed. An  ice-house  would  prove  still  more  profitable  if  the 
dairy  be  situated  near  large  towns,  where  the  ice  could  be 
sold  in  summer.  According  to  Dr.  Deane,  the  temperature 
of  the  milk  room  should  be  from  fifty  to  fifty-five  degrees  of 
Fahrenheit's  thermometer  ;  and  the  Complete  Grazier  says, 
'  where  the  temperature  of  the  milk  room  has  become  affected 
by  the  carrying  of  newly  drawn  milk  into  it,  it  may  be  easily 
reduced  to  the  proper  temperature  by  suspending  a  small 
quantity  of  ice  at  a  considerable  height  from  the  floor  ;  and 
if,  during  winter,  the  cold  should  become  too  great,  a  barrel 
of  hot  water  closely  stopped,  or  a  few  hot  bricks  placed  on 
the  floor  or  table  of  the  milk  room,  will  readily  counteract  its 
effects.  But  on  no  account  whatever  should  a  chafing-dish 
with  burning  coals  be  used,  as  it  will  certainly  impart  a  bad 
taste  to  the  milk.' 

The  proper  receptacles  for  milk  are  tin  or  earthen  pans, 
not  glazed  nor  lined  with  lead,  or  wooden  trays.  Lead, 
copper,  or  brass  utensils,  as  well  as  earthen-ware  vessels 
glazed  with  lead,  ought  on  no  pretext  whatever  to  be  used; 
for  the  acid  which  is  contained  in  milk  combines  with  these 
metals,  and  forms  a  poisonous  compound  with  them.  Sir 
John  Sinclair  recommends  vessels  made  of  cast  iron,  softened 
by  annealing  them  in  charcoal,  so  that  they  will  not  break 
by  an  ordinary  fall,  turned  smooth  in  the  inside,  and  laid 
over  with  a  coat  of  tin,  to  prevent  the  iron  from  coming  in 
contact  with  the  milk.     These  milk  dishes  are  stated  to  be 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


83 


kept  more  easily  clean  than  wooden  vessels  ;  and  their  su- 
perior power  of  conducting  heat  cools  the  milk  so  rapidly 
that  the  Scottish  farmers'  wives,  who  have  given  them  a  fair 
trial,  affirm  that  they  throw  up  one-third  more  cream  from  an 
equal  quantity  of  milk."^  Cast  iron  vessels,  without  being 
tinned,  would  give  no  poisonous  quality  to  the  milk,  but  they 
might  render  the  produce  of  the  dairy  unpalatable. 

'  All  dairy  utensils  ought  to  be  most  carefully  scoured, 
first  with  hot  water,  and  afterwards  rinsed  with  cold,  and 
kept  in  an  airy  place,  in  order  that  every  possible  degree  of 
acidity  majr  be  removed,  bnould  one  or  two  scourings  be 
insufficient,  they  must  be  repeatedly  cleansed  until  they  be- 
come entirely  sweet,  as  the  slightest  taint  or  acidity  may 
cause  material  loss.'t  Slate,  according  to  some  accounts, 
makes  very  good  milk  coolers,  and  perhaps  freestone  might 
answer  as  well. 

The  quality  and  quantity  of  cows'  milk  greatly  depends 
on  the  nature  of  their  food.  Potatoes,  carrots,  and  parsnips 
are  recommended  as  causing  cows  to  give  excellent  milk ; 
and  mangel-wurtzel  is  highly  spoken  of  for  the  same  purpose. 
Cabbages,  if  sound,  answer  an  excellent  purpose,  but  the  de- 
cayed leaves  give  a  bad  taste  to  the  milk.  It  is  thought 
best  to  milk  cows  three  times  a  day  if  fully  fed,  and  great 
caution  should  be  exercised  by  the  persons  employed  to 
draw  the  milk  from  them  completely,  not  only  to  increase  the 
quantity  of  produce,  but  to  preserve  its  quality.  Any  por- 
tion which  may  be  left  in  the  udder  seems  gradually  to  be 
absorbed  into  the  system,  and  no  more  is  formed  than  enough 
to  supply  the  loss  of  what  is  taken  away ;  and  by  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  same  mode  a  yet  farther  diminution  takes 
place,  until  at  length  scarcely  any  is  produced.  This  last 
mode  of  milking  is  practised  when  it  is  intended  to  render  a 
cow  dry. 

'  After  the  milk  is  drawn  from  the  cow,  it  should  be  care- 
fully strained  through  a  linen  cloth  or  a  hair  sieve,  (Dr.  An- 
derson prefers  a  sieve  made  of  silver  wires,  on  account  of  its 
superior  wholesomeness,)  into  the  cream  dishes,  which  should 
never  exceed  three  inches  in  depth,  though  they  may  be 
made  so  wide  as  to  contain  any  quantity  required,  and  which 
ought  to  be  perfectly  clean,  sweet,  and  cool.  If  any  ill  flavor 
is  apprehended  from  the  cows  having  eaten  tu;nips,  &c.,  the 
addition  of  one-eighth  part  of  boiling  water  to  the  milk  be- 

*  Agricultural  Report  of  Scotland.  f  Complete  Grazier. 


84  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

fore  it  is  poured  irxto  the  dishes  will  effectually  remove  it.* 
When  filled;  the  dishes  ought  to  be  set  upon  shelves  or 
dressers,  ihere  to  continue  till  the  cream  is  removed.  This 
should  be  steadily  done  by  means  of  a  skimming  dish,  if 
possible,  without  spilling  any  upon  the  floor,  because  it  will 
speedily  taint  the  air  of  the  room;  and  the  cream  poured 
into  a  vessel,  till  enough  be  obtained  for  churning. 

The  Farmer's  Assistant  judiciously  observes,  '  If  new  milk 
be  kept  as  warm  as  when  it  comes  from  the  cow,  no  cream 
will  ri;-e  on  it ;  but  when  sufficiently  cooled,  the  cream  sepa- 
rates from  the  rest  and  rises  to  the  top.  In  order  then  to 
effect  this  to  the  best  advantage,  the  new  milk  should  be 
made  as  cool  as  possible,  and  the  cooler  it  is  thus  made  the 
more  suddenly  and  effectually  the  cream  will  rise.  To  set 
milkpans  made  of  tin  in  beds  of  salt  would  no  doubt  be  use- 
ful, where  the  cellar  is  too  warm  ;  and  to  set  all  milk  vessels 
on  a  floor  which  is  constantly  covered  with  cold  spring  water 
is  also  an  excellent  plan.' 

The  following  remarks  relative  to  the  best  mode  of  making 
butter  are  chiefly  derived  from  Dr.  Anderson's  valuable  Essay 
on  that  subject.  1.  The  milk  first  drawn  from  a  cow  is 
always  thinner,  and  inferior  in  quality  to  that  afterwards 
obtained ;  and  this  richness  increases  gradually  to  the  very 
last  drop  that  can  be  drawn  from  the  udder  2.  The  portion 
of  cream  rising  first  to  the  surface  is  richer  in  quality  and 
greater  in  quantity  than  that  which  rises  in  the  second  equal 
space  of  time,  and  so  of  the  rest,  the  cream  decreasing  and 
growing  worse  as  long  as  it  rises  at  all.  3.  Thick  milk  pro- 
duces a  smaller  proportion  of  cream  than  that  which  is  thin- 
ner, though  the  cream  of  the  former  is  of  a  richer  quality. 
If  thick  milk  therefore  be  diluted  with  water,  it  will  afford 
more  cream  than  it  would  have  yielded  in  its  pure  state, 
though  its  quality  will  at  the  same  time  be  inferior.  4.  Milk 
carried  about  in  pails,  or  other  vessels,  agitated  and  partly 

*  Mr.  Yor.iiT  has  recommended  the  dairy-man  to  boil  tv>ro  ounces  of 
nitre  in  one  qMrt  of  water,  and  to  bottle  the  mixture;  of  which,  when 
cold,  a  large  tea-cupful  is  to  be  added  to  ten  or  twelve  quarts  of  milk  as 
soon  as  it  comes  from  the  cow.  The  quantity  of  salpetre  is  to  be  increased 
as  the  turnips  become  stronger.  The  feeding  of  cows  with  the  roots 
alone  will,  as  the  earl  of  Ejremont  found,  prevent  the  milk  from  having 
a  bad  taste.  Another  method  of  removing  any  ill  flavor  arising  from  the 
cows  having  eaten  turnips,  consists  in  warming  the  cream,  and  after- 
wards pouring  it  into  a  vessel  of  cold  water;  from  which  the  cream  is  to 
be  skimmed  as  it  rises  to  the  surface,  and  thus  the  unpleasant  taste  will 
be  left  behind  in  the  water. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  85 

cooled  before  it  is  put  into  the  milkpans,  never  throws  np 
such  good  and  plentiful  cream  as  if  it  had  been  put  into  pro- 
per vessels  immediately  after  it  came  from  the  cow. 

From  these  fundamental  facts,  the  doctor  deduces,  in  sub- 
stance, the  following  rules : 

1.  The  cows  should  be  milked  as  near  the  dairy  as  possi- 
ble, to  prevent  the  necessity  of  carrying  and  cooling  the 
milk  before  it  be  put  into  the  dishes  ;  and  as  cows  are  much 
hurt  by  far  driving.  It  must  be  a  great  advantage  in  a  dairy 
farm  to  have  the  principal  grass  fields  as  near  the  dairy  or 
homestead  as  possible.  In  this  point  of  view,  also,  the  prac- 
tice of  feeding  cows  in  the  house,  rather  than  turning  them 
out  to  pasture  in  the  field,  must  be  obviously  beneficial."^ 

2.  The  practice  of  putting  the  milk  of  all  the  cows  of  a 
large  dairy  into  one  vessel,  as  it  is  milked,  there  to  remain 
till  the  whole  milking  be  finished,  before  any  part  is  put  into 
the  milkpans,  seems  to  be  highly  injudicious,  not  only  on 
accornt  of  the  loss  sustained  by  the  agitation  and  cooling, 
but  also,  the  more  especially,  because  it  prevents  the  owner 
of  the  dairy  from  distinguishing  the  good  from  the  bad  cow's 
milk,  so  as  to  enlighten  his  judgment  respecting  the  profit 
that  he  may  derive  from  each.  Without  this  precaution,  he 
may  have  the  whole  of  his  dairy  produce  greatly  debased  by 
the  milk  of  one  bad  cow  for  years  together,  without  being 
able  to  discover  it.  A  better  practice,  therefore,  would  be 
to  have  the  milk  drawn  from  each  cow  separately  put  into 
the  creaming  pans  as  soon  as  milked,  without  being  ever 
mixed  with  any  other  ;  and  if  these  p(ans  were  all  made  of 
such  a  size  as  to  be  able  to  contain  the  whole  of  one  cow's 
milk,  each  in  a  separate  pan,  the  careful  daii  would  thus  be 
able  to   remark,  without  any  trouble,  the  quantity  of  milk 

*  Mr.  Lawrence,  in  his  '  Treatise  on  Cattle,'  observes,  that  'it  is  stated 
by  theoretical  writers,  that  to  feed  cows  in  the  home  stall  increases  their 
quantity  of  inilk ;  a  fact  which  various  experiments  compel  me  to  disprove. 
With  mc  it  has  ever  had  the  effect  of  adding  to  the  substance  of  the  ani- 
mal, and  of  diminishing  the  quantity  of  her  milk  ;  probably  from  defect 
of  the  exercise  she  was  wont  to  take  in  collecting  her  food,  and  the  se- 
lection of  herbage  she  was  enabled  to  make.'  This  writer,  however,  is  of 
opinion,  that  '  the  aggregate  quantity  of  milk  in  a  dairy  may  be  enlarged 
by  keeping  pastures  free  from  the  tread  of  the  cows,  since  a  greater 
number  may  be  kept,  perhaps  by  one-third,  on  the  same  extent  of  ground; 
at  the  same  time  the  animals  may  be  secured  from  the  harassing  and 
debilitating  effects  of  the  sun  and  flies. 

t  A  provincial  word,  denoting  the  person  who  has  the  chief  concern  in 
a  dairy. 

8 


86  THE    COMPLETE  FARMER 

afforded  by  each  cow  every  day,  as  well  as  the  peculiar 
qualities  of  the  cow's  milk.  And  if  the  same  cow's  milk 
were  always  to  be  placed  on  the  same  part  of  the  shelf,  hav- 
ing the  cow's  name  written  beneath,  there  never  could  be 
the  smallest  difficulty  in  ascertaining  which  of  the  cows  it 
would  be  for  the  owner's  interest  to  dispose  of,  and  which  he 
ought  to  keep  and  breed  from. 

3.  If  it  be  intended  to  make  butter  of  a  very  fine  quality^ 
it  will  be  advisable,  not  only  to  reject  entirely  the  milk  of  all 
those  coAvs  which  yield  cream  of  a  bad  quality,  but  also,  in 
every  case,  to  keep  the  milk  that  is  first  drawn  from  the  cow 
at  each  milking  entirely  separate  from  that  which  is  got  last ; 
as  it  is  obvious,  if  this  be  not  done,  the  quality  of  the  butter 
must  be  greatly  debased,  without  adding  much  to  its  quantity. 
It  is  also  obvious,  that  the  quality  of  the  butter  will  be  im- 
proved in  proportion  to  the  smallness  of  the  quantity  of  the 
last  drawn  milk  which  is  used,  as  it  increases  in  richness  to 
the  very  last  drop  that  can  be  drawn  from  the  udder  at  that 
time ;  so  that  those  who  wish  to  be  singularly  nice  will  do 
well  to  keep  for  their  best  butter  a  very  small  proportion  of 
the  last  drawn  milk. 

Dr.  Anderson  proceeds  to  state  in  substance,  that  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland  the  common  practice  is  to  let  the  calf 
suck  till  the  dairymaid  judges  that  it  has  had  enough;  it  is 
then  separated,  the  legs  of  the  mother  hav'ng  been  previously 
shackled  by  a  very  simple  contrivance,  to  oblige  her  to  stand 
still,  and  the  dairymaid  milks  off  what  is  left  by  the  calf.  In 
this  way,  he  observes,  the  Highland  butter  has  been  greatly 
celebrated  as  the  '  richest  marrowy  butter  which  can  any- 
where be  met  wiih.'  The  milk  which  is  first  drawn,  and 
consequently  of  inferior  quality,  may  be  converted  into  an 
inferior  kind  of  butter,  sold  sweet,  or  made  into  cheeses, 
which,  by  being  made  of  sweet  milk,  if  made  with  care  and 
skill,  may  be  of  fine  quality. 

Churning  ought  to  be  regularly  continued  till  the  butter 
comes,  or  is  formed.  If  the  motion  in  summer  be  too  quick, 
the  butter  will,  in  consequence,  ferment,  and  become  ill- 
tasted  ;  and,  in  winter,  it  will  go  back.  Churning,  it  is  said, 
may  be  made  easier  by  putting  the  bottom  of  the  pump  churn 
about  one  foot  deep  into  a  vessel  of  cold  water,  and  continu- 
ing it  there  till  the  butter  is  made.  The  addition  of  one  or 
two  table-spoonfals  of  distilled  vinegar,  after  churning  awhile, 
will,  it  is  said,  produce  butter  much  sooner  in  many  instances 
than  it  can  be  formed  without  such  addition. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  87 

Some  writers  advise  to  wash  the  butter,  after  it  is  formed, 
thoroughly  in  several  waters,  till  all  the  milk  is  removed. 
Dr.  Anderson,  however,  advises  to  force  the  milk  out  of  the 
cavities  of  the  butter  by  means  of  a  flat,  wooden  ladle,  fur- 
nished with  a  short  handle,  at  the  same  time  agitating  the 
butter  as  little  as  possible,  lest  it  become  tough  and  gluey. 
'The  beating  up  of  butter,'  he  observes,  '  by  the  hand,  is  an 
indelicate  practice,  particularly  if  it  be  constitutionally  warm; 
and  as  it  is  hurtful  to  the  quality  of  the  butter  to  pour  cold 
water  on  it  during  this  operation,  the  butter,  if  too  soft  to  re- 
ceive the  impression  of  the  mould,  may  be  put  into  small 
vessels,  and  there  be  permitted  to  float  in  a  trough  of  cold 
water  beneath  the  table,  loithout  wetting  the  huttei\  which  will 
soon  become  sufficiently  firm.  Or,  when  butter  is  first  made, 
after  as  much  of  the  milk  has  been  got  out  as  possible,  it  may 
be  thinly  spread  on  a  marble  slab,  and  the  remaining  mois- 
ture be  absorbed  by  patting  it  with  clean  dry  tov/els.' 

It  is  said  in  Bordley's  Husbandry,  that  '  dashing  in  water, 
and  then,  without  pause,  cl'^.aring  the  butter  from  every  par- 
ticle of  the  water,  is  widely  different  from  washing  butter  by 
kneading  and  letting  it  remain  at  all  in  the  water.  Very 
good  butter  for  flavor,  color,  and  consistence,  is  made  by  one 
\  ho  washes  it  twice,  but  never  lets  it  remain  in  the  water  a 
Luument.  Another  butter-maker  says,  mix  the  salt  in  the 
butter  in  the  evening,  and  let  it  rest  till  morning,  then  work 
out  the  liquor,  but  never  let  it  be   once  touched  with  water. 

Dr.  i^ndersou  remarks,  that  a  considerable  degree  of 
strength  as  well  as  dexterity  is  required  in  the  working  of 
butter.  The  thing  wanted  is  to  force  out  the  milk  entirely, 
with  as  little  tawing  [working]  of  the  butter  as  possible,  for 
if  the  milk  be  not  entirely  taken  away,  the  butter  will  spoil 
in  a  short  time ;  and  if  it  be  much  worked  the  butter  will 
become  tough  and  gluey,  which  greatljr  debases  its  quality. 

Before  you  put  butter  into  the  vessels  which  are  to  contain 
it,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  they  be  well  seasoned  by 
frequent  washing  and  exposure  to  the  air  for  two  or  three 
weeks.  As  it  is  difficult  to  season  new  firkins,  it  will  always 
be  preferable  to  employ  those  w^hich  have  been  used.  The 
most  speedy  method  of  seasoning  firkins  is  by  the  use  of  un- 
slacked  lime,  or  a  large  quantity  of  salt  and  w^ater,  well  boil- 
ed, with  which  they  should  be  repeatedly  scrubbed,  and  after- 
wards thrown  into  cold  water,  to  remain  there  three  or  four 
days,  till  wanted.  They  should  then  be  scrubbed  as  before, 
and  well  rinsed  with  cold  water  ;  and  before  the  butter  is  put 


88  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

in,  every  part  of  the  inside  of  the  firkin  must  be  well  rubbed 
with  salt. 

Butter  may  be'  salted  by  working  into  it  one  or  two  ounces 
of  salt,  after  the  buttermilk  has  been  forced  out.  The  salt 
should  be  thoroughly  incorporated,  and  be  of  the  best  and 
purest  quality.  Dr.  Anderson,  however,  recommends  the 
following  preparation,  which  he  has  experienced  to  be  much 
superior,  as  it  not  only  prevents  the  butter  from  becoming  in 
any  degree  rancid,  but  also  improves  its  appearance,  and  im- 
parts a  sweeter  and  richer  taste  than  could  be  given  by  com- 
mon salt  only.  For  every  pound  of  butter  take  half  an 
ounce  of  best  common  salt,  one  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  loaf 
sugar,  and  one  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  saltpetre ;  beat  and 
blend  the  whole  completely  together.  Butter  thus  cured 
should  stand  three  or  four  weeks  before  it  is  used,  that  the 
salts  may  be  well  mixed.  The  best  butter  is  made  in  sum- 
mer, but  by  adding  a  certain  portion  (which  experience 
alone  can  determine)  of  the  juice  expressed  from  the  pulp  of 
carrots  to  the  cream  previously  to  churning ;  winter-made 
butter  will  thus  acquire  the  appearance  and  flavor  of  butter 
that  has  been  churned  during  the  prime  part  of  the  summer 
season. 

A  writer  for  the  Journal  of  Humanity  gives  the  following 
rules  for  making  good  butter.  '  If  you  have  four  or  five 
cows,  it  is  best  to  churn  every  day  ;  and  by  no  means  less 
frequently  than  every  other  day.  If  you  cannot  churn  every 
day,  throw  into  the  cream,  when  gathered,  a  handfal  of  nice 
salt.  In  very  warm  weather,  when  milk  sours  soon,  put 
two  heaping  table-spoonfuls  of  salt  into  ev?ry  pail  of  milk 
before  straining.  The  quantity  as  well  as  the  quality  of  the 
butter  is  greatly  improv^ed  by  this  method.  If  you  have  ice, 
put  a  small  piece  in  every  pan  of  milk,  and  also  into  the 
cream  when  you  churn.  If  you  have  no  ice,  put  the  cream 
into  a  pail,  and  hang  it  in  the  well  twelve  hours  before  churn- 
ing. In  the  warm  season,  cream  should  be  skimmed  as  soon 
as  it  is  in  the  least  sour,  and  in  the  coldest  weather,  milk 
should  not  stand  more  than  thirty-six  or  forty-eight  hours. 
The  utmost  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  every  article  used 
in  making  butter  perfectly  sweet  by  frequent  and  thorough 
scalding.' 

A  writer  for  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  vi.  p.  370,  ob- 
served as  follows : 

'  It  does  not,  in  my  opinion,  improve  the  butter  to  have 
the  milk  sour  before  the  cream  is  gathered ;  but  at  this  sea- 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  89 

son  of  the  year  [June]  it  can  hardly  be  prevented.  It 
should,  however,  never  be  suffered  to  stand  till  the  milk  cur- 
dles. When  the  cream  is  gathered  it  should  be  set  in  an 
open  vessel,  where  the  air  can  have  free  access  to  its  sur- 
face ;  and  during-  the  time  that  the  cream  is  gathering  for  a 
churning  of  butter,  it  should  have  a  stick  or  spoon  kept  in 
the  vessel  where  the  cream  is,  by  which  the  cream  should 
be  stirred  at  least  half  a  dozen  times  a  day,  enough  to  mix 
it  up  well,  and  bring  a  new  portion  of  it  to  the  air ;  and  it 
should  stand  beforj  the  window  of  the  milk  room,  or  some 
other,  the  most  airy  position  afforded  by  the  room.  When 
you  have  gathered  a  mess  for  this  season  of  the  year,  fill 
your  churn  over  night  with  cold  water,  and  empty  it  in  the 
morning.  Put  in  your  cream  and  churn  it  with  a  regular, 
steady,  and  not  too  rapid  motion.  It  will  generally  come  in 
from  ten  to  twenty  minutes,  and  when  fetched  it  needs  no 
coloring  matter. 

'  I  know  that  women  say  flies  will  get  into  the  cream  if 
left  uncovered ;  let  them  get  in,  and  pick  them  out,  rather 
than  cover  up  the  vessel  containing  the  cream. ^ 

'  The  windows  to  milk  rooms,  in  many  houses,  are  not  suf- 
ficiently large,  with  from  four  to  eight  siiiall  panes  of  glass. 
This  affords  too  stinted  a  portion  of  air.  If  your  glass  is 
small,  you  want  a  twenty-four  lighted  window  to  the  milk 
room,  with  blinds  to  exclude  the  sun.  If  two  such  windows, 
so  situated  as  to  afford  a  draught  of  air,  the  better.  But 
stint  your  milk  room  of  air,  and  keep  the  cream  pot  covered 
tight  to  exclude  flies,  and  your  butter  will  be  white  and  bit- 
ter, besides  being  a  long  while  coming.' 

Making  Butter  in  Wi?iter.  A  friend  has  furnished  us  with 
the  following  observations  on  this  subject : 

'  In  February,  1825,  I  spent  a  few  days  with  Dr.  Jones, 
v/ho  lives  near  Hyco  bridge,  in  Halifax  county,  Virginia. 
Mrs.  Jones  prepares  her  cream  for  churning  by  heating  the 
milk  after  it  has  stood  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours. 

'  She  places  it  over  coals  the  evening  before  churning,  un- 
til the  milk  as  it  stands  with  the  cream  on  is  heated  ready 
to  boiling,  when  she  sets  it  by  till  morning.  The  cream  is 
then  skimmed  off,  and  churned  by  stirring  in  an  earthern 
vessel.  The  butter  is  delicately  white  and  clear  in  its  com- 
plexion, firm,  and  fine  flavored. 

*  Perhaps  a  covering  of  gauze,  millinet,or  other  light  and  porous  sub- 
stance, or  a  lid  perforated  with  small  holes,  might  admit  air  and  exclude 
the  flies. — Editor. 
8# 


90  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

'  This  process  would,  no  doubt,  prove  more  successful  in 
any  part  of  New  England,  since  the  climate  of  Virginia  is 
generally  less  favorable  to  the  dairy  than  that  of  the  eastern 
states.' 

From  the  same  pen  we  are  favored  with  the  following : 

Garlic  in  Butter.  '  When  milk  has  the  flavor  of  garlic, 
or  wild  onion,  add  a  quart  of  boiling  water  to  each  gallon, 
and  set  it  away  in  vessels,  having  the  bottom  covered  the 
thickness  of  an  inch  only  with  milk.  The  cream  that  rises 
will  be  sweet  and  free  from  any  disagreeable  flavor.' 

L.  Peters,  Esq.  of  Westborough,  Massachusetts,  says,  rela- 
tive to  making  winter  butter,  '  My  wife's  method  is  to  set 
the  vessels  in  which  the  cream  is  collected  near  the  fire  a 
while  before  it  is  put  into  the  churn,  and  frequently  stir  it  a 
little,  and  turn  the  vessels,  that  it  may  be  warmed  equally, 
till  it  is  as  warm  as  cream  in  the  summer,  as  near  as  she  can 
judge ;  and  before  putting  it  into  the  churn,  that  is  scalded 
with  scalding  water.  When  the  churning  commences,  it  is 
done  moderately,  and  if  there  is  any  frothy  appearance,  then 
warm  water  is  put  in,  the  churn  put  near  the  fire,  and 
occasionally  turned,  till  the  temperature  is  altered,  and  the 
churning  is  finished,  which  is  generally  in  a  short  time.  If 
a  dash  churn  is  used,  set  it  into  a  tub  of  hot  water,  and  fre- 
quently move  the  dash  a  little,  to  mix  the  warm  and  cold 
cream,  till  it  is  of  a  suitable  warmth,  which  an  observing  per- 
son will  soon  ascertain  by  practice.' — N.  E.  Farmer,  vol.  vi. 
p.  370. 

A  valuable  paper  on  the  making  of  butter  in  cold  weather, 
by  the  Rev.  W.  Allen,  states  the  results  of  several  trials,  by 
which  it  appears  that  butter  may  be  obtained  in  the  coldest 
weather  within  from  ten  to  twenty  minutes,  if  the  cream  at 
the  commencement  of  the  churning  is  brought  to  the  tem- 
perature of  about  seventy-five  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

E.  H.  Derby,  Esq.  of  Salem,  Massachusetts,  recommends 
the  making  of  butter  by  the  aid  of  frost,  as  follows  : 

'  The  milk  when  taken  from  the  cows  is  immediately 
strained  into  earthen  pans,  and  set  in  the  coldest  part  of  the 
house  ;  as  soon  as  the  frost  begins  to  operate,  a  separation 
takes  place,  the  cream  rises  in  a  thick  paste  to  the  top,  and 
leaves  the  milk,  without  a  particle  of  cream,  frozen  in  the 
pan.  The  cream  is  not  so  hard  but  that  it  can  be  easily 
scraped  off'  with  a  spoon,  to  the  solid  ice  ;  it  is  then  set  aside 
until  a  sufficient  quantity  is  collected  for  churning,  Avhen  it 
is  warmed  just  so  much  as  to  thaw  the  cream  sufficiently  to 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  91 

put  it  into  the  churn.  I  have  never  known  it  to  require 
more  than  five  minutes  to  convert  such  cream  into  butter, 
after  the  churnini^  had  commenced.' 


CHEESE — Method  of  making.  '  The  milk  is  universally 
set  for  cheese  as  soon  as  it  comes  from  the  cow. 

'  The  management  of  the  curd  depends  on  the  kind  of 
cheese :  thin  cheese  requires  the  least  labor  and  attention. 

'  Breaking  the  curd  is  done  with  the  hand  and  dish.  The 
finer  the  curd  is  broken  the  better,  particularly  in  thick 
cheeses.  The  best  color  of  this  kind  of  cheese  is  that  of 
bees-wax,  which  is  produced  by  annotta,  rubbed  into  the 
milk  after  it  is  warmed.  The  dairy-woman  is  to  judge  of 
the  quality  by  the  color  of  the  milk,  as  it  differs  much  in 
strength.  The  runne^  is  prepared  by  taking  some  whey 
and  salting  till  it  will  bear  an  Qgg ;  it  is  then  suffered  to 
stand  over  night,  and  in  the  morning  it  is  skimmed  and  rack- 
ed off  clear ;  to  this  is  added  an  equal  quantity  of  water 
brine,  strong  as  the  whey,  and  into  this  mixture  some  sweet- 
briar,  thyme,  or  some  other  sweet  herbs ;  also  a  little  black 
pepper  and  saltpetre  ;  the  herbs  are  kept  in  the  brine  three 
or  four  days,  after  which  it  is  decanted  clear  from  them. 
Into  six  quarts  of  this  liquor  four  large  calves'  bags,  or,  more 
properly  called,  calves'  stomachs,  are  put.  No  part  of  the 
preparation  is  heated,  and  frequently  the  calves'  bags  are 
only  steeped  in  cold  salt  and  water.  Turning  the  milk  dif- 
fers in  different  dairies,  no  two  dairy-women  conducting  ex- 
actly alike. 

'  Setting  the  milk  too  hot  inclines  the  cheese  to  heave, 
and  cooling  it  with  cold  water  produces  a  similar  effect. 
The  degree  of  heat  varies  according  to  the  weather.  The 
curd  when  formed  is  broken  with  what  is  called  a  treple 
cheese  knife.  The  use  of  this  is  to  keep  the  fat  in  the 
cheese.  It  is  drawn  the  depth  of  the  curd  two  or  three 
times  across  the  tub,  to  give  the  whey  an  opportunity  of  run- 
ning off  clear  ;  after  a  few  minutes  the  knife  is  more  freely 
used,  and  the  curd  is  cut  into  small  pieces  like  checkers,  and 
is  broken  fine  in  the  whey  with  the  hand  and  a  wooden  dish. 
The  curd  being  allowed  about  half  an  hour  to  settle,  the 
whey  is  laded  off  with  the  dish,  after  it  is  pretty  well  sepa- 
rated from  the  curd. 

'  It  is  an  almost  invariable  practice  to  scald  the  curd.  The 
mass  is  first  broken  very  fine,  and  then  the  scalding  whey  is 


92  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

added  to  it  and  stirred  a  few  minutes  ;  some  make  use  of  hot 
water  in  preference  to  whey,  and  it  is  in  both  cases  heated 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  curd  ;  if  it  is  soft,  the  whey 
or  water  is  used  nearly  boiling ;  but  if  hard,  it  is  only  used  a 
little  hotter  than  the  hand.  After  the  curd  is  thoroughly 
mixed  with  the  hot  stnfT,  it  is  suffered  to  stand  a  few  minutes 
to  settle,  and  is  then  separated  as  at  the  first  operation. 
After  the  scalding  liquor  is  separated,  a  vat,  or  what  is  often 
called  a  cheese  hoop,  is  laid  across  the  cheese  ladder  over 
the  tub,  and  the  curd  is  crumbled  into  it  with  the  hands,  and 
pressed  into  the  vat,  to  squeeze  out  the  whey.  The  vat  be- 
ing filled  as  full  and  as  firmly  as  the  hand  alone  can  fill  it, 
and  rounded  up  in  the  middle,  a  cheese  cloth  is  spread  over 
it,  and  the  curd  is  turned  out  of  the  hoop  into  the  cloth  ;  the 
vat  is  then  Avashed,  and  the  inverted  mass  of  curds,  with  the 
cloth  under  it,  is  returned  into  the  vat  and  put  into  the  press  ; 
after  standing  two  or  three  hours  in  the  press,  the  vat  is 
taken  out,  and  the  cloth  is  taken  off,  washed,  and  put  round 
the  cheese,  and  it  is  replaced  in  the  vat  and  in  the  press. 
In  about  seven  or  eight  hours  it  is  taken  out  of  the  press  and 
salted,  the  cheese  is  placed  on  a  board,  and  a  handful  of  salt 
is  rubbed  all  over  it,  and  the  edges  are  pared  off  if  necessary  ; 
another  handful  of  salt  is  strewed  on  the  upper  side,  and  as 
much  left  as  will  stick  to  it ;  afterwards  it  is  turned  into  the 
bare  vat  without  a  cloth,  and  an  equal  quantity  of  salt  is 
added  to  it,  and  the  cheese  is  returned  into  the  press  ;  here 
it  continues  one  night,  and  the  next  morning  it  is  turned  in 
the  vat,  and  continues  till  the  succeeding  morning,  and  the 
curd  is  taken  out  and  placed  on  the  dairy  shelf:  here  they 
are  turned  every  day  or  every  other  day,  as  the  weather  may 
be.  If  it  is  hot  and  dry,  the  windows  and  door  are  kept 
shut ;  but  if  wet  or  moist,  the  door  and  windows  are  kept 
open  night  and  day.' 

Cleaning  the  Cheese.  '  The  cheeses  having  remained  about 
ten  days  after  leaving  the  press,  are  to  be  washed  and 
scraped  in  the  following  manner :  a  large  tub  of  cold  sweet 
whey  is  placed  on  the  floor,  the  cheeses  are  immerged  in  it, 
where  they  continue  one  hour,  or  longer,  if  necessary,  to 
soften  the  rind.  They  are  then  taken  out  and  scraped  with 
a  common  case-knife,  with  great  care,  so  as  not  to  injure  the 
tender  rind,  till  every  part  of  the  cheese  is  smooth  ;  they 
are  after  the  last  operation  rinsed  in  the  whey  and  wiped 
clean  with  a  coarse  cloth,  and  placed  in  an  airy  situation  to 
dry,  after  which  they  are  placed  in  the  cheese  room.     The 


AND    RURAL    ECONOTVIIST.  93 

floor  of  the  cheese  room  is  generally  prepared  by  rubbing  it 
with  bean  or  potato  tops,  or  any  succulent  herb,  till  it  ap- 
pears of  a  black  wet  color.  On  this  floor  the  cheeses  are 
placed,  and  turned  twice  a  week  ;  their  edges  are  wiped  hard 
with  a  c^oth  once  a  week,  and  the  floor  is  cleansed  and  rub- 
bed with  fresh  herbs  once  a  fortnight.  They  must  not  lie 
too  long  or  they  will  stick  to  the  floor.  This  preparation  of 
the  floor  gives  the  cheese  a  blue  coat,  which  is  considered  of 
great  consequence. 

Stilton  Cheese,  hoio  made.  '  The  Stilton  cheese,  which 
may  be  called  the  Parmesan  of  England,  is  not  confined  to 
Stilton  and  its  vicinity,  for  many  farmers  in  Huntingdon- 
shire, and  also  in  Rutland  and  Northamptonshire,  make  a 
similar  sort,  sell  them  for  the  same  price,  and  give  them  the 
name  of  the  Stilton  cheeses. 

'  Take  the  night's  cream  and  put  it  into  the  morning's  new 
milk  with  the  runnet ;  when  the  curd  is  separated,  let  it  not 
be  broken,  as  is  done  with  other  cheese,  but  take  it  out,  dis- 
turbing it  as  little  as  possible,  and  suffer  it  to  dry  gradually 
in  a  sieve ;  and  as  the  whey  separates,  compress  it  gradually 
till  it  has  acquired  a  firm  consistence ;  then  place  it  in  a 
wooden  hoop,  and  suffer  it  to  dry  very  gradually  on  a  board, 
taking  care  at  the  same  time  to  turn  it  daily  with  close  bind- 
ers round,  and  which  must  be  tightened  as  the  cheese  ac- 
quires more  solidity. 

Cheese,  Skippers  in.  '  Wrap  the  cheese  in  thin  brown  pa- 
per, so  thin  that  moisture  may  strike  through  soon ;  dig  a 
hole  in  good  sweet  earth  about  two  feet  deep,  in  which  the 
cheese  must  be  buried  about  thirty-six  hours,  and  the  skip- 
pers will  be  found  all  on  the  outside  of  the  cheese  ;  brush 
them  off'  immediately,  and  you  will  find  your  cheese  sound 
and  good. 

To  prevent  Cheese  having  a  rancid  nauseous  flavor.  '  Put 
about  one  table-spoonful  of  salt  to  each  gallon  of  milk,  when 
taken  from  the  cows  in  the  evening,  for  the  cheese  to  be 
made  the  next  day ;  put  the  salt  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel 
that  is  to  receive  the  milk  ;  it  will  increase  the  curd,  and  pre- 
vent the  milk  from  growing  sour  or  putrid,  the  hottest  nights 
in  the  summer.' — Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository. 

[The  following  is  from  the  pen  of  a  friend,  to  whom  we  are  indebted 
for  several  valuable  articles,  written  expressly  for  this  work.] 

'  To  make  Cheese.  A  person  whose  dairy  enjoys  a  high 
reputation  gives  the  following  directions  for  making  cheese : 


94  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

"  Take  a  gallon  and  a  half  of  water  and  throw  into  it  a 
pint  and  a  half  of  common  salt.  Boil  and  skim  it,  and  add 
three  or  four  ounces  of  rose  leaves.  After  it  is  sufficiently- 
steeped,  iet  it  cool,  and  put  in  one  ounce  of  saltpetre  and 
four  runnets.  A  great  spoonful  of  this  preparation  is  enough 
to  turn  fifteen  gallons  of  milk.  When  the  curd  is  made,  dip 
it  out  carefully,  and  put  it  into  a  cloth  that  sits  in  a  vessel 
with  its  bottom  perforated  with  holes.  Let  a  person  on  each 
side  of  the  cloth  take  up  the  corners,  and  raise  the  curd  care- 
fully, and  turn  it  from  one  side  to  the  other  in  the  cloth,  in 
order  to  the  better  draining  off  the  whey ;  then  lay  it  as  be- 
fore, in  a  vessel  perforated  with  holes,  and  thus  turn  it  once 
in  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  and  in  the  intervals  place,  a  fol- 
lower upon  it,  with  a  stone  above  ;  cutting  the  curd  through 
each  time.  When  the  whey  is  out,  season  it  with  salt  to 
suit  your  palate,  while  cutting  it  up  in  small  pieces  with  a 
suitable  knife  ;  then  put  it  up  for  pressing.  Let  it  stand  un- 
der thirty  or  forty  pounds'  weight  twenty-four  hours,  and 
then  turn  it,  and  let  it  stand  twenty-four  hours  more  under 
the  same.  A  severe  pressure,  which  is  sometimes  given, 
spoils  a  rich  cheese  entirely.' 

"  Set  your  cheese  in  closets  made  for  the  purpose,  which 
flies  cannot  enter, 

"  The  outside  may  be  rubbed  with  a  mixture  of  butter  and 
Spanish  brown,  which  answers  very  well,  but  other  mixtures 
may  answer  equally  well. 

"  A  small  quantity  of  otter,  say  the  size  of  a  kernel  of  rye, 
sewed  up  in  a  doth,  may  be  put  in  each  curd. 

"  Never  wash  out  your  cheese  cloth  with  soap,  but  boil  it 
out  in  whey."  ' 


HEMP.  The  following  essay  on  the  culture  of  Hemp  was 
oriijinally  published  in  the  Western  Agriculturist.  It  is  a 
complete  treatise  on  the  best  manner  of  raising  and  prepar- 
ing an  article,  which  always  commands  cash  sufTicient  to  re- 
ward liberally  the  cultivator  who  proceeds  correctly  in  ob- 
taining this  valuable  product.  The  author  of  the  essay  is 
not  less  favorably  known  as  a  statesman  than  as  a  practical 
and  scientific  agriculturist,  and  the  signature  of  Henuy  Clay 
will  give  it  that  weight  and  currency  with  American  farmers 
which  is  due  to  its  intrinsic  excellence. 

Sir,  Having  promised  you  some  account  of  the  method  of 
cultivating  and  preparing  hemp  in  this  state,  I  now  proceed 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  95 

to  redeem  it.  I  shall  endeavor  to  describe  the  general  prac- 
tice of  the  cultivators,  without  noticing  all  the  deviations  of 
particular  individuals. 

The  district  of  country  in  which  the  plant  is  most  exten- 
sively cultivated,  is  the  Elkhorn  region  around  and  near  Lex- 
ington, which  derives  its  name  from  a  stream  discharging  it- 
self into  the  Kentucky  river,  whose  branches  are  supposed 
to  resemble  the  horns  of  the  elk.  It  is  also  produced  in  con- 
siderable quantities  in  the  counties  of  Jefferson,  Shelby, 
Mercer,  Madison,  Ciurke,  Bourbon,  and  Mason.  The  soil  of 
that  region  is  a  rich,  deep,  vegetable  loam,  free  from  sand 
and  with  but  little  grit.  It  lies  on  a  bed  of  clay,  interspersed 
with  small  fragments  of  iron  ore,  and  this  clay  in  its  turn  re- 
poses on  a  mass  of  limestone  lying  many  feet  in  depth  in 
horizontal  strata.  The  surface  of  the  country  is  generally 
undulating.  The  rich  land  (and  there  is  but  little  that  is 
not  rich)  in  this  whole  region  is  well  adapted  to  the  growth 
of  hemp,  where  it  has  not  been  too  much  exhausted  by  inju- 
rious tillage.  The  lands  which  produce  it  best  are  those 
which  are  fresh,  or  which  have  Iain  some  time  in  grass  of 
clover.  Manuring  is  not  yet  much  practised.  Clover  is 
used  in  lieu  of  it.  Lands  which  remain  in  clover  four  or 
five  years  without  being  too  constantly  and  closely  grazed, 
recover  their  virgin  fertility.  The  character  of  the  soil  in 
the  other  counties  above  mentioned  does  not  vary  materially 
from  that  in  the  Elkhorn  district. 

The  preparation  of  the  ground  for  sowing  the  seed  is  by 
the  plough  and  horses,  until  the  clods  are  sufficiently  pul- 
verized or  dissolved,  and  the  surface  of  the  field  is  rendered 
even  and  smooth.  It  should  be  as  carefully  prepared  as  if  it 
were  for  flax.  This  most  important  point,  too  often  neglected, 
cannot  bo  attended  to  too  much.  Scarcely  any  other  crop 
better  rewards  diligence  and  careful  husbandry.  Fall  or 
winter  ploughing  is  practised  with  advantage ;  it  is  indis- 
pensable in  old  meadows,  or  old  pasture  grounds,  intended 
for  producing  hemp. 

Plants  for  seed  are  ordinarily  reared  in  a  place  distinct 
from  that  in  which  they  are  cultivated  for  the  lint.  In  this 
respect,  the  usage  is  different  from  that  which  is  understood 
to  prevail  in  Europe.  The  seeds  which  are  intended  to  re- 
produce seeds  for  the  crop  of  the  next  year,  are  sowed  in 
drills  about  four  feet  apart.  When  they  are  grown  suffi- 
ciently to  distinguish  between  the  male  and  female  stalks, 
the  former  are  pulled  and  thrown  away,  and  the  latter  are 


96 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


thinned,  leaving  the  stalks  separated  seven  or  eight  inches 
from  each  other.  This  operation  is  usually  performed  in 
the  blooming  season,  when  the  sexual  character  of  the  plants 
is  easily  diGcernible  ;  the  male  alone  blossoming,  and,  when 
agitated,  throwing  off  farina,  a  yellow  dust  or  flour,  which 
falls  and  colors  the  ground,  or  anj^  object  that  comes  in  con- 
tact with  it.  A  few  of  the  male  plants  had  better  be  left, 
scattered  through  the  drill,  until  the  farina  is  completely 
discharged,  for  an  obA'ious  reason.  Between  the  drills  a 
plough  is  run  sufficiently  often  to  keep  the  ground  free  from 
weeds  and  grass ;  and  between  the  stalks  in  each  drill  the 
hoe  is  employed  for  the  same  object.  The  seed  plants  are 
generally  cut  after  the  first  smart  frost,  between  the  2'5th 
September  and  the  middle  of  October,  and  carried  to  a  barn 
or  stack-yard,  where  the  seeds  are  easily  detached  by  the 
common  flail.  They  should  be  gathered  after  a  slight,  but 
before  a  severe  frost ;  and,  as  they  fall  out  very  easily,  it  is 
advisable  to  haul  the  plants  on  a  sled,  and,  if  convenient, 
when  they  are  wet.  If  transported  on  a  cart  or  wagon,  a 
sheet  should  be  spread  to  catch  the  seed  as  they  shatter  out. 
After  the  seeds  are  separated,  the  stalks  which  bore  them 
being  too  large,  coarse,  and  harsh,  to  produce  lint,  are  usu- 
ally thrown  away  ;  they  may  be  profitably  employed  in  mak- 
ing charcoal  for  the  use  of  powder-mills.  In  Europe,  where 
the  male  and  female  plants  are  promiscuously  grown  together 
in  the  same  field,  both  for  seeds  and  for  lint,  the  male  stalks 
are  first  gathered,  and  the  female  suffered  to  remain  growing 
until  the  seeds  are  ripe,  when  they  are  also  gathered  ;  the 
seeds  secured  and  lint  obtained,  after  the  rotting,  from  both 
descriptions. 

After  the  seeds  are  threshed  out,  it  is  advisable  to  spread 
them  on  a  floor,  to  cure  properly  and  prevent  their  rotting, 
before  they  are  finally  put  away  for  use  the  next  spring. 
Seeds  are  not  generally  used  unless  they  were  secured  the 
fall  previous  to  their  being  sown,  as  it  is  believed  they  will 
not  vegetate  if  older  ;  but  it  has  been  ascertained  that  when 
they  are  properly  cured  and  kept  dry,  they  will  come  up 
after  the  first  year.  It  is  important  to  prevent  them  from 
heating,  which  destroys  the  vegetating  property,  and  for 
that  purpose  they  should  be  thinly  spread  on  a  sheltered 
floor. 

The  seeds,  w^hether  to  reproduce  seeds  only,  or  the  lint, 
are  sowed  about  the  same  time.  Opinions  vary  as  to  the 
best  period.     It  depends  a  good  deal  upon  the  season.     The 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  97 

plant  is  very  tender  when  it  first  shoots  up,  and  is  affected 
by  frost.  Some  have  sowed  as  early  as  the  first  of  April ; 
but  it  is  generally  agreed,  that  all  the  month  of  May,  and 
about  the  10th  of  it  especially,  is  the  most  favorable  time. 
An  experienced  and  successful  hemp  grower,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Lexington,  being  asked  the  best  time  to  sow 
hemp,  answered,  immediately  before  a  rain.  And  undoubt- 
edly it  is  very  fortunate  to  have  a  moderate  rain  directly 
after  sowing. "^ 

When  the  object  is  to  make  a  crop  of  hemp,  the  seeds 
are  sown  broad-cast.  The  usual  quantity  is  a  bushel  and  a 
half  to  the  acre  ;  but  here  again  the  farmers  differ,  some 
using  two  bushels  or  even  two  and  a  half.  Much  depends 
on  the  strength  and  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  care  with 
which  it  has  been  prepared,  as  well  as  the  season.  To  these 
causes  maybe  ascribed  the  diversity  of  opinion  and  practice. 
The  ground  can  only  sustain  and  nourish  a  certain  quantity 
of  plants;  and  if  that  limit  be  passed,  the  surplus  wdll  be 
smothered  in  the  growth.  When  the  seeds  are  sown,  they 
are  ploughed  or  harrowed  in ;  ploughing  is  best  in  old 
ground,  as  it  avoids  the  injurious  effect  of  a  beating  rain, 
and  the  consequent  baking  of  the  earth.  It  would  be  also 
beneficial  subsequently  to  roll  the  ground  Avith  a  heavy 
roller. 

After  the  seeds  are  sown,  the  labors  of  the  cultivator  are 
suspended,  until  the  plants  are  ripe,  and  in  a  state  to  be 
gathered  ;  every  thing  in  the  intermediate  time  being  left 
to  the  operations  of  nature.  If  the  season  be  favorable  un- 
til the  plants  are  sufficiently  high  to  shade  the  ground,  (which 
they  will  do  in  a  few  weeks,  at  six  or  eight  inches'  height,) 
there  is  strong  probability  of  a  good  crop.  When  they  at- 
tain that  height,  but  few  articles  sustain  the  effect  of  bad 
seasons  better  than  hemp. 

It  is  generally  ripe  and  ready  to  be  gathered  about  the 
middle  of  August,  varying  according  to  the  time  of  sowing. 
Some  sow  at  different  periods,  in  order  that  the  crop  may 
not  all  ripen  at  the  same  time,  and  that  a  press  of  labor  in 
rearing  it  may  bs  thus  avoided.  The  muturity  of  the  plant 
is  determined  by  the  evaporation  of  the  farina,  already  no- 

*  [Would  it  not  be  well  to  soak  the  seed  in  water  a  few  hours  previous 
to  sowins^  ?  We  have  found  this  to  answer  nearly  as  good  a  purpose  as 
rain  after  sowing,  with  all  seeds  with  which  we  have  tried  it.  The  vege- 
tation of  mangel-wurtzei  is  wonderfully  accelerated  by  it. — £d.  Am. 
Farmer.] 

9 


98  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

ticed,  and  the  leaves  of  the  plant  exhibiting  a  yellowish  hue : 
it  is  then  generally  supposed  to  be  ripe,  but  it  is  safest  to 
wait  a  few  days  longer.  Very  little  attentive  observation 
will  enable  any  one  to  judga  when  it  is  fully  ripe.  In  that 
respect  it  is  a  very  accommodating  crop,  for  if  gathered  a 
little  too  soon,  the  lint  is  not  materially  injured,  and  it  will 
wait  the  leisure  of  the  farmer  some  ten  days  or  a  fortnight 
after  it  is  entirely  ripe. 

Two  modes  of  gathering  the  plants  are  practised,  one  by 
pulling  them  up  by  the  roots,  an  easy  operation  with  an 
able-bodied  man,  and  the  other  by  cutting  them  about  two 
inches  (the  nearer  the  better)  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Each  mode  has  its  partisans,  and  I  have  pursued  both.  From 
a  quarter  to  a  third  of  an  acre  is  the  common  task  of  an 
average  laborer,  whether  the  one  or  the  other  mode  is  prac- 
tised. Tne  objections  to  pulling  are,  that  the  plants  with 
their  roots  remaining  connected  with  them,  are  not  after- 
wards so  easily  handled  in  the  several  operations  which  they 
must  undergo  ;  that  all  parts  of  the  plant  do  not  rot  equally 
and  alike,  Avhen  exposed  to  the  dew  and  rain  ;  and,  finally, 
that  before  you  put  them  to  the  brake,  when  the  root  should 
be  separated  from  the  stalk,  the  root  drags  off  with  it  some 
of  the  lint.  The  objection  to  cutting  is,  that  you  lose  two 
or  three  inches  of  the  best  part  of  the  plant  nearest  the  root. 
Pulling,  being  the  most  ancient  method,  is  most  generally 
practised.  I  prefer,  upon  the  whole,  cutting ;  and  I  believe 
the  number  who  prefer  it  is  yearly  increasing.  When  pull- 
ed, it  is  done  with  the  hand,  w^hich  is  better  for  the  protec- 
tion of  an  old  leather  glove.  The  laborer  catches  twenty  or 
thirty  plants  together,  with  both  hands,  and  by  a  sudden  jerk 
draws  them  without  much  difficulty.  The  operation  of  cut- 
ting is  performed  with  a  knife,  often  made  out  of  an  old 
scythe,  resembling  a  sickle,  though  not  so  long,  but  broader. 
This  knife  is  applied  much  in  the  same  way  as  the  sickle,  ex- 
cept that  the  laborer  stoops  more. 

Whether  pulled  or  cut,  the  plants  are  carefully  laid  on  the 
ground,  the  evener  the  better,  to  cure ;  which  they  do  in 
two  or  three  days,  in  dry  weather.  A  light  rain  falling  on 
them  whilst  lying  down  is  thought  by  some  to  be  beneficial, 
inasmuch  as  the  leaves,  of  which  they  should  be  deprived, 
may  be  easier  shaken  off  or  detached.  When  cured,  the 
plants  are  set  up  in  the  field  in  which  they  were  produced,  in 
shocks  of  convenient  size,  the  roots  or  butt  ends  resting  on 
the  ground,  and  the  tops  united  above  by  a  band  made  of  the 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  99 

plants  themselves.  Previous  to  putting  them  up  in  shocks, 
most  cultivators  tie  the  plants  in  small  hand  bundles  of  such 
a  size  as  that  each  can  be  conveniently  held  in  one  hand. 
Before  the  shocks  are  formed,  the  leaves  of  the  plants  should 
be  rapidly  knocked  off  Avith  a  rough  paddle  or  hooked  stick. 
Some  suffer  the  plants  to  remain  in  these  shocks  until  the 
plants  are  spread  down  to  be  rotted.  Others,  again,  collect 
the  shocks  together  as  soon  as  they  can  command  leisure, 
(and  it  is  clearly  best,)  and  form  them  into  stacks.  A  few 
farmers  permit  these  stacks  to  remain  over  a  whole  year,  be- 
fore the  plants  are  exposed  to  be  rotted.  I  have  frequently 
done  it  with  advantage,  and  have  at  this  time  two  crops  in 
stalks.  By  remaining  that  period  in  stalks,  the  plants  go 
through  a  sweat,  or  some  other  process,  that  improves  very 
much  the  appearance,  and,  I  believe,  the  quality  of  the  lint, 
and  this  improvement  fully  compensates  the  loss  of  time  in 
bringing  it  to  market.  The  lint  has  a  soft  texture  and  a 
lively  hue,  resembling  water  rotted  hemp ;  and  I  once  sold  a 
box  of  it  in  the  Baltimore  market  at  the  price  of  Kussia 
hemp.  In  every  other  respect,  the  plants  are  treated  as  if 
they  were  not  kept  over  a  year. 

The  method  of  dew  rotting  is  that  which  is  generally  prac- 
t "  -ed  in  Kentucky.  The  lint  so  spread  is  not  so  good  for 
iiiany  purposes,  and  especially  for  rigging  and  ships,  as  when 
the  plants  have  been  rotted  by  immersion  in  water,  or,  as  it 
is  generally  termed,  water  rotted.  The  greater  value,  and 
consequently  higher  price,  of  the  article  prepared  in  the  lat- 
ter way,  has  induced  more  and  more  of  our  farmers  every 
year  to  adopt  it  ;  and  if  that  prejudice  were  subdued,  which 
every  American  production  unfortunately  encounters  when 
it  is  first  introduced  and  comes  in  contact  with  a  rival  Euro- 
pean commodity,  I  think  it  probable  that  in  a  few  years  we 
should  be  able  to  dispense  altogether  with  foreign  hemp. 
The  obstacles  which  prevent  the  general  practice  of  water 
rotting  are,  the  want  of  water  at  the  best  season  for  the 
operation,  which  is  the  month  of  September ;  a  repugnance 
to  the  change  of  an  old  habit ;  and  a  persuasion,  which  has 
some  foundation,  that  handling  the  plants  after  their  submer- 
sion in  water  during  that  month  is  injurious  to  health.  The 
first  and  last  of  these  obstacles  would  be  removed  by  water 
rotting  early  in  the  winter,  or  in  the  spring.  The  only  dif- 
ference in  the  operation,  performed  at  those  seasons  and  in 
the  month  of  September,  would  be,  that   the  plants  would 


100  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

have  to  remain  longer  in  soak  before  they  were  sufficiently 
rotted. 

The  plants  are  usually  spread  down  to  be  dew  rotted  from 
the  middle  of  October  to  the  middle  of  December.  A  farmer 
who  has  a  large  crop  on  hand  puts  them  down  at  different 
times  for  his  convenience  in  handlino'  and  dressing  them. 
Autumnal  rotting  is  more  apt  to  give  the  lint  a  dark  and 
unsightly  color  than  winter  rotting.  The  best  ground  to 
expose  the  plants  upon  is  meadow  or  grass  land,  but  they 
are  not  unfrequently  spread  over  the  same  field  on  which 
they  grow.  The  length  of  time  they  ought  to  remain  ex- 
posed depends  upon  the  degree  of  moisture  and  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  weather  that  prevail.  In  a  very  wet  and  warm 
spell  five  or  six  weeks  may  be  long  enough.  Whether  they 
have  been  sufficiently  rotted  or  not  is  determined  bj^  experi- 
ment. A  handful  is  taken  and  broken  by  the  hand  or  ap- 
plied to  the  brake,  when  it  can  be  easily  ascertained,  by  the 
facility  with  which  the  lint  can  be  detached  from  the  stalk, 
if  it  be  properly  rotted.  If  the  plants  remain  on  the  ground 
too  long,  the  fibres  lose  some  of  their  strength,  though  a  few 
days  longer  than  necessary,  in  cold  weather,  will  not  do  any 
injury.  If  they  are  taken  up  too  soon,  that  is,  before  the 
lint  can  be  easily  separated  from  the  woody  part  of  the  stalk, 
it  is  harsh,  and  the  process  of  breaking  is  difficult  and  trou- 
blesome. Snow  rotting,  that  is,  when  the  plants,  being  spread 
out,  remain  long  enough  to  rot,  (which  however  req'iires  a 
greater  length  of  time,)  bleaches  the  lint,  improves  the  quali- 
ty, and  makes  it  nearly  as  valuable  as  if  it  had  been  water 
rotted. 

After  the  operation  of  rotting  is  performed,  the  plants  are 
again  collected  together,  put  in  shocks  or  stacks,  or,  which  is 
still  better,  put  under  a  shed  or  some  covering.  When  it  is 
designed  to  break  and  dress  them  immediately,  they  are  fre- 
quently set  up  against  some  neighboring  fence.  The  best 
period  for  breaking  and  dressing  is  in  the  months  of  Februa- 
ry and  March,  and  the  best  sort  of  weather  frosty  nights  and 
clear  thawing  days.  The  brake  cannot  be  used  advantage- 
ously in  wet  or  moist  weather.  It  is  almost  invariably  used 
in  this  state  out  of  doors  and  without  any  cover ;  and  to 
assist  its  operation,  the  laborer  often  makes  a  large  fire  near 
it,  which  serves  the  double  purpose  of  drying  the  plants  and 
warming  himself.  It  could  not  be  used  in  damp  weather  in 
a  house  without  a  kiln  or  some  other  means  of  drying  the 
stalks. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  101 

The  brake  in  general  use  is  the  same  hand  brake  which 
was  originally  introduced  and  has  been  always  employed 
here,  resembling,  though  longer  than,  the  common  flax  brake. 
It  is  so  well  known  as  to  render  a  particular  description  of 
it,  perhaps,  unnecessary.  It  is  a  rough  contrivance,  set  upon 
four  legs,  about  two  and  a  half  feet  high.  The  brake  con- 
sists of  two  jaws  with  slits  on  each,  the  lower  jaw  fixed  and 
immovable,  and  the  upper  one  movable,  so  that  it  may  be 
lifted  up  by  means  of  a  handle  inserted  into  a  head  or  block 
at  the  front  end  of  it.  The  lower  jaw  has  three  slats  or 
teeth,  made  of  tough  white  oak,  and  the  upper  two,  arranged 
approaching  to  about  two  inches  in  front,  and  in  such  manner 
that  the  slats  of  the  upper  jaw  play  between  those  of  the 
lower.  These  slats  are  about  six  or  seven  feet  in  length,  six 
inches  in  depth,  and  about  two  inches  in  thickness  in  their 
lower  edges ;  they  are  placed  edgewise,  rounded  a  little  on 
their  upper  edges,  which  are  sharper  than  those  below.  The 
laborer  takes  his  stand  by  the  side  of  the  brake,  and  grasping 
in  his  left  hand  as  many  of  the  stalks  as  he  can  conveniently 
hold,  with  his  right  hand  he  seizes  the  handle  in  the  head 
of  the  upper  jaw,  which  he  lifts,  and  throwing  the  handful 
of  stalks  between  the  jaws,  repeatedly  strikes  them  by  lift- 
ing and  throwing  down  the  upper  jaw.  These  successive 
strokes  break  the  woody  or  reedy  part  of  the  stalks  into 
small  pieces  or  shoes,  which  fall  off  during  the  process.  He 
assists  their  disengagement  by  striking  the  handful  against 
a  stake,  or  with  a  small  wooden  paddle,  until  the  lint  or  bark 
is  entirely  clean,  and  completely  separated  from  the  woody 
particles. 

After  the  above  operation  is  performed,  the  hemp  may  be 
scutched,  to  soften  it,  and  to  strengthen  the  threads.  That 
process,  however,  is  not  thought  to  be  profitable,  and  is  not 
therefore  generally  performed  by  the  grower,  but  is  left  to 
the  manufacturer,  as  well  as  that  of  beating  and  hackling  it. 
Scutching  is  done  by  the  laborer  taking  in  his  left  hand  a 
handful  of  the  lint,  and  grasping  it  firmly,  then  laying  the 
middle  of  it  upon  a  semicircular  notch  of  a  perpendicular 
board  of  the  scutching  frame,  and  striking  with  the  edge  of 
the  scutch  that  part  of  the  lint  which  hangs  down  on  the 
board.  After  giving  it  repeated  strokes,  he  shakes  the  hand- 
ful of  lint,  replaces  it  on  a  notch,  and  continues  to  strike  and 
turn  all  parts  of  it,  until  it  is  sufficiently  cleansed,  and  the 
fibres  appear  to  be  even  and  straight. 

The  usual  daily  task  of  an  able-bodied  hand  at  the  brake 


102  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

is  eighty  pounds'  weight ;  but  there  is  a  great  difference  not 
only  in  the  state  of  the  weather  and  the  condition  of  the 
stalks,  produced  by  the  greater  or  less  degree  in  which  they 
have  been  rotted,  but  in  the  dexterity  with  which  the  brake 
is  employed.  Some  hands  have  been  known  to  break  from 
one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  pounds  per  day.  The 
laborer  ties  up  in  one  common  bundle  the  work  of  one  day, 
and  in  this  state  it  is  taken  to  market  and  sold.  From  what 
has  been  mentioned,  it  may  be  inferred,  as  the  fact  is,  that 
the  hemp  of  some  growers  is  in  a  much  better  condition  than 
that  of  others.  When  it  has  been  carelessly  handled  or  not 
sufficiently  cleansed,  a  deduction  is  made  from  the  price  by 
the  purchaser.  It  is  chiefly  bought  in  our  villages,  and 
manufactured  into  cotton  bagging,  bales,  and  other  kinds  of 
untarred  cordage.  The  price  is  not  uniform.  The  extremes 
have  been  as  low  as  three  and  as  high  as  eight  dollars  for 
the  long  hundred,  the  customary  mode  of  selling  it.  The 
most  general  price  during  a  term  of  many  years  has  been 
from  four  to  five  dollars.  At  five  dollars  it  compensates  well 
the  labor  of  the  grower,  and  is  considered  more  profitable 
than  any  thing  else  the  farmer  has  cultivated. 

The  most  heavy  labor  in  the  culture  of  hemp  is  pulling  or 
cutting  it,  when  ripe,  and  breaking  it  when  rotted.  This 
labor  can  easily  be  performed  by  men.  Various  attempts 
have  been  made  to  improve  the  process  of  breaking,  which 
is  the  severest  work  in  the  preparation  of  hemp.  A  newly- 
invented  machine  was  erected  for  that  purpose  on  my  farm 
six  or  eight  years  ago,  to  dress  hemp  by  dispensing  with  rot- 
ting altogether,  similar  in  structure  to  one  which  was  exhi- 
bited about  the  same  time  at  Columbus,  during  the  sitting  of 
the  Ohio  legislature.  It  was  worked  by  horse  power,  and 
detached  the  lint  tolerably  well,  producing  a  very  fine  look- 
ing article,  equalling  in  appearance  Russia  hemp.  A  ton  of 
it  was  sold  to  the  navy  department,  which  was  manufactured 
into  rigging  for  the  ship  of  the  line  the  North  Carolina, 
prior  to  her  making  a  voyage  of  three  years  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Upon  her  return,  the  cordage  was  examined  and 
analyzed ;  and  although  its  exterior  looked  very  well,  it  was 
found,  on  opening  it,  to  be  decayed  and  affected  somewhat 
like  the  dry  rot  in  wood.  I  considered  the  experiment  de- 
cisive ;  and  it  is  now  believed  that  the  process  of  water  or 
dew  rotting  is  absolutely  necessary,  either  before  or  after  the 
hemp  has  been  to  the  brake.  There  is  a  sappy  or  glutinous 
property  of  which  it  should  be  divested,  and  that  is  the  only 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  103 

process  that  has  been  hitherto  generally  and  successfully  em- 
ployed to  divest  it. 

An  ingenious  and  enterprising  gentleman  in  the  neigbor- 
hood  of  Lexington  has  been,  ever  since  the  erection  of  the 
abjve-mentioned  machine,  trying  various  experiments,  by 
altering  and  improving  it,  to  produce  one  more  perfect,  which 
might  be  beneficially  employed  on  rotted  hemp,  to  diminish 
the  labors  of  the  brake.  He  mentioned  the  other  day  that 
all  of  them  had  failed ;  that  he  had  returned  to  the  old  hand 
brake,  and  that  he  was  convinced  that  it  answered  the  pur- 
pose better  than  any  substitute  with  which  he  was  acquaint- 
ed. I  observe  Mr.  H.  L.  Barnum  has  recently  advertised  a 
machine  which  he  has  constructed  for  breaking  and  dressing 
hemp  and  flax,  which  can  be  procured  at  the  establishment 
of  Mr.  Smith,  in  Cincinnati.  I  most  cordially  wish  him  suc- 
cess ;  but  the  number  of  failures  which  I  have  witnessed, 
during  a  period  of  thirty  years,  in  the  attempt  to  supersede 
manual  labor  by  the  substitution  of  that  of  machines,  induces 
me  to  fear  that  it  will  be  long  before  this  desideratum  is 
attained. 

The  quantity  of  net  hemp  produced  to  the  acre  is  from  six 
hundred  to  one  thousand  weight,  varying  according  to  the 
fertility  and  preparation  of  the  soil  and  the  state  of  the  sea- 
son. It  is  said  that  the  quantity  which  any  field  will  produce 
may  be  anticipated  by  the  average  height  of  the  plants 
throughout  the  field.  Thus,  if  the  plants  will  average  eight 
feet  in  height,  the  acre  will  yield  eight  hundred  weight  of 
hemp ;  each  foot  in  height  corresponding  to  a  hundred  weight 
of  the  lint. 

Hemp  exhausts  the  soil  slowly,  if  at  all.  An  old  and  suc- 
cessful cultivator  told  me  that  he  had  taken  thirteen  or  four- 
teen successive  crops  from  the  same  field,  and  that  the  last 
was  the  best.  That  was  probably  however  owing  to  a  con- 
currence of  favorable  circumstances.  Nothing  cleanses  and 
prepares  the  earth  better  for  other  crops  (especially  for  small 
grain  or  grasses)  than  hemp.  It  eradicates  all  weeds,  and 
when  it  is  taken  off',  leaves  the  field  not  only  clean,  but  smooth 
and  even. 

The  rich  lands  of  Ohio.  Indiana,  and  Illinois,  are,  I  have 
no  doubt,  generally  well  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  this 
valuable  plant ;  and  those  states  enjoy  some  advantages  for 
the  cultivation  of  it  which  this  docs  not  possess.  Their 
streams  do  not  dry  up  as  much  as  ours,  and  they  conse- 
quently employ  better  than  we  can  the  agency  of  water  in 


104  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

the  preparation  of  it.  Their  projected  canals,  when  com- 
pleted, will  admit  of  its  being  carried  to  the  A4lantic  capitals 
at  less  expense  in  the  transportation  than  we  can  send  it. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  unfortunate  state  of  slavery  among 
us  gives  us,  at  present,  probably  a  more  certain  command  of 
labor  than  those  states  have. 


FLAX.  The  following  observations  on  this  subject  are 
extracted  from  '  Essays  on  Flax  Husbandry.  By  S.  W. 
Pomeroy,  Esq.,  First  Vice-President  of  the  Massachusetts 
Society  for  Promoting  Agriculture.' 

Change  of  Seed.  Notwithstanding  it  is  an  opinion  well 
established  among  experienced  flax  growers  in  this  country, 
that  a  change  of  seed  is  advantageous,  it  is  apprehended  that 
they  are  not  aware  of  the  extent  of  the  benefit  to  be  derived 
by  selecting  seed  from  a  soil  or  climate  essentially  different ; 
and  it  may  be  owing  to  a  want  of  attention  in  this  particular, 
that  the  flax  crops  are  so  uncertain,  and  the  quality  inferior, 
however  perfect  in  other  respects  the  system  may  be  con- 
ducted. Mr.  Young  observes  that  '  foreign  flax-seed  was 
universally  used  in  Ireland,  when  it  could  be  obtained  ;  other- 
wise they  were  careful  to  procure  seed  which  grew  upon 
soil  of  an  opposite  quality  from  that  which  was  to  be  sown; 
'  that  American  seed  was  to  be  preferred,  and  produced  finer 
flax  than  any  other.'  Baltic  seed  produced  more,  but  of  a 
coarser  quality.  It  is  well  known  that  American  seed  al- 
ways bears  the  highest  price  in  the  Irish  market. 

Mr.  Pomeroy  cites  a  number  of  examples  to  show  the  im- 
portance attached  to  the  culture  of  flax  in  Europe,  '  and  to 
justify  the  conclusion  that  in  this  country  a  continued,  judi- 
cious change  of  seed  will  be  indispensable  to  the  successful 
prosecution  of  flax  husbandry ;  and  a  farther  inference  may 
be  drawn,  that  experiments  on  various  soils,  with  seed  the 
growth  of  different  climates,  are  requisite  to  direct  the  farmer 
to  the  quarter  from  whence  his  best  seed  may  be  obtained. 
Here  opens  a  legitimate  field  for  our  numerous  agricultural 
societies  to  labor  in :  on  their  exertions  the  farmer  must  de- 
pend ir\  the  outset ;  but  let  it  once  be  ascertained  that  Riga 
seed  is  best  in  one  section,  Dutch  or  German  in  others,  and 
mercantile  interest,  if  not  patriotism,  will  distribute  them. 

'  Should  it  be  objected  to  importing  seed  on  account  of  the 
expense,  we  reply  that  large  quantities  of  linseed  oil  are  con- 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  105 

stantly  imported,  and  the  difference  of  price  between  our 
own  seed  and  tliat  imported  will  not  much  exceed  what  is 
now  paid  for  good  clean  seed  for  sowing  or  export,  and  that 
which  is  sold  for  crushing;  but  if  it  is  f.fty  cents  per  bdshel, 
or  more,  it  can  be  no  object,  compared  with  the  advantages 
that  may  be  reasonably  expected  to  result ;  and  the  far^ner 
need  not  be  told,  that  "  in  all  his  operations  parsimony  is 
never  so  ill  judged  as  when  it  is  exercised  in  the  selection 
of  his  seeds."  It  is  not  pretended,  however,  but  that,  from 
the  great  variety  of  soil  and  climate  in  the  United  States, 
the  object  in  view  might  be  obtained  w^ithout  importation ; 
yet  it  may  be  important  to  have  a  good  stock  to  begin  with, 
when  trials  could  be  instituted  with  its  produce.  At  any 
rate,  it  cannot  be  expected  that  individuals  will  embark  in 
such  a  course  of  experiments,  either  with  foreign  or  domes- 
tic seed,  unless  encouraged  by  agricultural  societies,  or  other 
public  bodies.' 

In  speaking  of  the  soils  most  suitable  for  flax,  Mr.  Pome- 
roy  observes,  '  The  soils  which  rank  first  in  this  country  are 
the  flat  bottoms  that  are  covered  by  the  fall  and  spring  floods, 
which  subside  early  enough  in  the  season  to  get  in  a  crop ; 
those  river  flats  on  the  second  banks  that  have  a  depth  of 
strong  alluvial  soil ;  the  reclaimed  marshes  and  swamps,  with 
a  black  unctuous  soil,  not  too  peaty,  with  as  much  clay  in. 
the  composition  as  will  permit  its  being  rendered  soon  dry 
and  mellow,  and  not  retain  water  on  or  near  the  surface  ;  if 
it  stands  two  feet  below,  so  much  the  better,  but  it  must  be 
well  guarded  by  ditches  and  dykes  against  sudden  freshets. 
Such  is  the  soil  of  the  province  of  Zealand,  where  more  flax 
is  raised,  and  of  better  quality,  than  in  any  other  part  of 
Holland.  The  next  in  estimation  are  the  strong  black  loams 
on  clay  or  hard  pan,  that  will  retain  moisture.  Yellow 
loams,  with  a  holding  subsoil,  may  be  rendered  suitable  for 
flax  by  proper  cultivation ;  and  since  the  discovery  that 
plaster  of  Paris  is  an  excellent  manure  for  it,  a  crop  may  be 
obtained  with  much  more  certainty  on  lighter  land  than  for- 
merly. Perhaps  the  characteristic  of  best  garden  mould 
may  be  applied  to  a  flax  soil,  viz.,  retaining  sufllcient  mois- 
ture, and  all  that  falls,  without  ever  being  saturated ;  but  on 
any  soils  the  surface  should  be  completely  pulverized,  and 
never  be  worked  when  wet. 

'  No  dung  should  be  applied  to  the  land  when  the  flax  is 
sown,  but  may  be  put  on  bountifully  with  the  previous  crop. 
The  objection  is,  that  dung  forces  the  growth   so  rapidly, 


106  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

that  the  plants  draw  weak,  have  a  thin  harl,  and  are  the 
more  liable  to  lodge.  Lime,  marl,  shells,  leached  ashes,  &c. 
do  not  produce  such  effects.  Top-dressings,  soon  after  the 
plants  appear,  of  plaster,  ashes,  soot,  &c.,  are  highly  bene- 
ficia],  as  they  not  only  encourage  the  growth,  but  are  a  pro- 
tectioix  against  worms,  which  sometimes  attack  young  plants, 
and  may  be  considered  the  only  enemy  they  have  except 
weeds. 

'  Salt  has  been  mentioned  by  the  late  Dr.  Elliot,  of  Con- 
necticut, as  an  excellent  manure  to  plough  in  with  flax,  at 
the  rate  of  five  bushels  to  the  acre  ;'^  probably  more  would 
be  better.  Plaster  is  now  much  used  in  Duchess  county,  the 
best  cultivated  district  in  New  York,  as  a  manure  for  flax,  on 
which  its  good  effects  are  as  apparent  as  on  corn. 

'  The  late  chancellor  Livingston  viewed  a  piece  of  flax  on 
the  20th  of  May,  1791,  belonging  to  a  poor  tenant,  very  in- 
judiciously sown  on  a  dry  sandy  declivity ;  it  looked  so  ex- 
tremely sickly  that  the  tenant  thought  of  ploughing  it  up  ; 
the  chancellor  gave  him  three  bushels  of  plaster,  which  was 
sown  the  next  morning  before  the  dew  was  off,  and  had  the 
satisfaction  of  seeing  his  tenailt  gather  more  flax  from  his 
half  acre  in  an  uncommon  dry  season,  than  was  produced 
from  anj^  acre  in  the  neighborhood. 

'  The  best  preparatory  crops  in  this  country  at  present  ap- 
pear to  be  potatoes,  corn,  and  roots  ;  they  will  most  generally 
repay  the  extra  manure,  and,  if  well  managed,  check  the  pro- 
duction of  weeds. 

'  The  following  rotations  may  serve  as  an  outline  subject, 
to  be  varied,  and  hemp  or  other  crops  introduced,  as  circum- 
stances require,  viz.  : 

No.  I.  Loio,  cold,  or  reclaimed  Soils. 

1st  year,  Potatoes. 

2d     do.     Flax,  with  seeds. 

3d  do.  Herd's  grass  and  red  top,  or  tall  meadow  oat 
grass,  to  continue  three  years  or  more,  and  the  course  re- 
peated. 

No.  II.    Strong  Uplands. 

1st  year.  Potatoes  or  corn. 

2d     do.     Corn  or  roots. 

3d     do.     Flax,  with  seed. 

4th   do.      Clover. 

*  See  Elliot's  Essays  on  Field  Husbandry. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  107 

5th  year,  Orchard  grass  or  herd's  grass,  to  continue  three 
years  or  more. 

No.  III.  Light  Lands. 

1st  year,  Potatoes  or  corn. 

2d     do.     Corn  or  roots. 

3d     do.    Flax,  with  seed. 

4th  do.  Clover,  to  be  mown  once,  the  after  c^rowth  to  be 
turned  in,  and  rye  sown  thick  on  the  furrow,  which  may  be 
soiled  or  fed  in  the  spring  by  sheep  or  milch  cows,  and 
ploughed  in  for, 

5th  year,  Corn. 

6th     do.     Spring  ivheat  or  barley. 

7th  do.  Clover  ;  and  the  course  to  be  pursued  as  before ; 
when  flax  will  occupy  the  land  every  seventh  year.  In  all 
cases,  except  when  hemp  is  substituted,  the  tillage  crops 
should  receive  the  dung. 

'  If  the  land  is  ploughed  into  bedr  or  convex  ridges,  like 
turnpike  roads,  about  a  rod  wide,  especially  if  low  and  level, 
the  crop  will  be  much  m.ore  secure  from  injury  by  heavy 
rains,  and  the  grass  crops  will  be  better  if  it  remains  in  that 
form.  On  any  soils,  fall  ploughing  in  narrow  ridges  will 
facilitate  its  early  working  in  spring,  and  should  not  be  dis- 
pensed with.' 

Mr.  Pomeroy  gives  the  following  directions  relative  to 
choice  of  seed. 

'  That  of  the  last  year's  growth  should  be  obtained  if  pos- 
sible. The  usual  marks  of  good  seed  are,  that  it  be  plump, 
oily,  and  heavy,  of  a  bright  brown  color,  sinking  readily  in 
the  water,  and  when  thrown  into  the  fire  to  crackle  and  blaze 
quick.  A  very  simple  method  of  trial  is  to  sprinkle  it  thin 
between  two  pieces  of  wet  paper,  which  plunge  into  a  hot- 
bed or  dunghill,  and  in  less  than  twenty-four  hours  the  pro- 
portion that  will  vegetate  can  be  discerned,  which  should  be 
ascertained,  in  order  to  regulate  the  quantity  to  be  soiun. 

'  On  this  head  no  particular  directions  can  be  given,  as  it 
depends  on  the  various  qualities  of  soil,  goodness  of  seed, 
&c.  The  rule  for  sowing  small  grains  is  reversed  ;  flax  re- 
quiring to  be  sown  thickest  on  rich  soil,  as  not  more  than 
one  stalk  is  wanted  from  a  plant.  In  England  and  Scotland 
never  less  than  two,  nor  more  than  three  bushels  to  the  acre 
are  sown.  Two  and  a  half  is  the  most  usual  portion.  In 
Flanders  and  Ireland  seldom  less  than  three  bushels  are  sown, 
except  when  seed  is  an  object.  Thick  sowing  is  to  obtain 
fine  flax.     In  this  country  it  will  be  important  at  present  to 


108  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

SOW  at  such  a  rate  as  will  insure  good  crops  of  each  ;  and 
experience  only  can  determine  the  exact  point.  It  is  proba- 
ble that  six  pecks  is  the  least,  and  two  bushels  the  extent 
that  should  be  sown  to  obtain  the  most  profitable  results,  till 
the  demand  for  seed  is  considerably  lessened/ 

Sou'hig.  Mr.  Pomeroy  recommends  sowing  as  early  as 
it  is  possible  to  prepare  the  grc  and,  says  that  it  is  important 
that  the  seeds  should  be  equally  distributed,  and  '  fortunately 
what  has  long  been  a  desideratum  is  now  attained.  A  ma- 
chine for  sowing  small  seeds  broad-cast  with  perfect  regu- 
larity has  lately  been  invented,  and  performs  to  great  satis- 
faction.^ 

Weeding.  '  Weeding  is  considered  in  Europe,  and  by 
good  husbandmen  in  this  country,  as  necessary  to  secure  a 
good  crop  of  flax,  which  is  a  very  tender  plant  when  young, 
and  more  easily  checked  in  its  progress  by  weeds  than  any 
other.  It  is  not  supposed  to  be  injured  by  the  clover  and 
grass  sown  with  it  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  Flemish  farmers 
think  them  beneficial,  by  protecting  the  tender  roots  from 
drought,  and  keeping  the  weeds  under.  It  should  be  care- 
fully wed  when  the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high  ;  they 
are  not  then  injured  by  the  laborer  going  barefooted  over 
them. 

Pulling.  '  This  should  be  performed  as  soon  as  the 
leaves  begin  to  fall  and  the  stalks  show  a  bright  yellow 
color,  and  when  the  bolls  are  turned  a  little  brown.  The 
seed  will  continue  to  ripen  afterwards.  When  the  flax  is 
lodged  it  should  be  pulled  immediately,  in  any  stage  of  its 
growth,  or  it  will  be  entirely  lost.  Great  care  is  requisite  in 
sorting  the  difl^erent  lengths,  and  keeping  them  separate  till 
after  the  flax  is  hackled,  or  much  waste  will  ensue  in  that 
process. 

Savi/ig  Seed.  '  As  soon  as  the  flax  is  dry  enough  to  be 
put  under  cover,  it  should  be  rippled,  as  it  is  termed.  A 
comb,  resembling  the  head  of  a  rake,  but  with  teeth  longer 
and  nearer  together,  made  of  hickory  or  oak,  is  fastened  up- 
on a  block,  and  the  flax,  taken  in  parcels  no  larger  than  the 

*  Bennett's  machine  for  sowing  broad-cast,  a  description  and  drawnng 
of  which  are  given  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Philadelphia  Agricultural  So- 
ciety, vol.  ir,  with  ample  testimony  of  its  usefulness.  It  is  pushed  for- 
ward by  a  man,  like  a  wheel-barrow,  and  will  sow  more  than  one  acre  in 
an  hour,  unimpeded  by  wind  or  light  rain.  They  are  for  sale  at  J.  R. 
Newell's  agricultural  warehouse,  ifos.  51  and  52,  North  Market  street, 
Boston. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  109 

hands  can  firmly  grasp,  is  drawn  through,  and  the  bolls  rip- 
pled off;  attention  to  sorting  at  the  same  time  should  be  con- 
tinued. The  bolls  are  to  be  riddled  and  winnowed  immedi- 
ately ;  spread  thin  on  a  clean  floor,  or  on  sheets,  in  the  sun, 
and  when  sufficiently  dry,  and  beginning  to  open,  threshed. 
By  this  method  the  foul  seeds  are  completely  separated  with 
little  trouble,  and  good  clean  seed  is  ready  for  an  early 
market,  often  the  best,  without  the  use  of  expensive  ma- 
chinery to  make  it  so.  Here  the  operations  of  the  farmer 
ought  to  end  ;  the  process  of  preparation  being  foreign  to 
and  unconnected  with  his  other  pursuits  ;  and  which  has  been 
the  greatest  objection  to  extensive  flax  culture.  Can  there 
be  a  reason  why  the  farmer  is  to  prepare  his  flax  more  than 
the  hides  of  his  cattle,  which  he  sends  to  the  tanner?  They 
are  both  chemical  processes  ;  and  to  dissolve  the  glutinous 
or  resinous  substances  by  which  the  fibres  are  attached  to 
the  stem,  without  impairing  their  strength,  is  perhaps  as 
critic  xl,  and  requires  as  much  care  and  judgment,  as  to  ex- 
tract the  animal  juices  from  the  hides,  and  fill  the  pores 
with  tannin.  In  short,  the  flax  grower  and  flax  preparer 
and  dresser  should  be  distinct  professions.  They  are  said 
to  be  so  in  Flanders  and  Holland,  and  were  extensively  so  in 
Scotland,  where  the  farmer  sold  his  flax  on  the  ground,  or 
in  sheaves  at  his  barn  or  rick. 

'  The  preparation  of  flax  by  steeping  is  very  general  in  the 
great  flax  growing  countries  in  Europe,  but  it  is  not  quite 
finished  in  the  water.  It  remains  spread  some  days  on  the 
grass,  which  is  necessary  to  render  it  soft,  and  give  that  sil- 
very appearance  so  desirable.  The  destructive  process  of 
dew  rotting  is  most  commonly  practised  in  this  country,  and 
when  water  is  resorted  to  it  is  at  an  improper  season,  and 
the  process  imperfect ;  which  is  the  cause  of  its  being  so 
harsh  and  brittle.  Perhaps  no  part  of  the  system  requires 
such  an  allowance  for  difference  of  climate.  In  the  humid 
atmosphere  of  Ireland  it  is  not  very  material  when  it  is 
spread ;  but  in  this  climate,  when  exposed  to  a  July  or 
August  sun,  every  drop  after  a  shower  becomes  a  burning- 
glass,  and  literally  scorches  the  fibres  :  besides,  such  a  highly 
putrid  fermentation  as  will  then  take  place  in  the  water, 
though  it  separates  the  harl  more  speedily,  not  only  injures 
it,  but  communicates  a  stain,  that  renders  the  process  of 
bleaching  much  more  tedious  and  expensive. 

'  The  flax  should  not  be   put  into  the  water  till  about  the 
first  of  October,  and  remain  from  ten  to  fourteen  days,  ac- 
10 


110  THE    COMrLETE    FARMER 

cording  to  the  temperature  of  the  weather ;  and  should  be 
taken  out  before  the  fibres  will  separate  freely,  spread  on 
the  grass,  when  the  frost  will  very  much  assist  the  operation ; 
and  the  flax  exhibits  a  gloss  and  softness  that  it  is  impossible 
to  give  it  otherwise.  The  following  method  of  preparing 
hemp  will  apply  with  great  force  to  the  point  under  discus- 
sion. During  the  late  war,  an  experienced  ship-master  in 
Connecticut,  and  who  was  also  a  good  farmer,  raised  a  crop 
of  hemp.  As  soon  as  it  was  dry  enough  to  be  stowed  away, 
it  was  put  under  cover,  and  remained  till  October  ;  was  then 
put  into  clear  soft  water,  till  the  fibres  would  separate  with 
some  difficulty,  when  it  was  spread  on  the  g^ass ;  the  frost 
completed  the  operation,  and  when  dry  it  was  immediately 
secured.  There  was  no  putrid  fermentation  to  deteriorate 
the  harl,  nor  was  it  mildewed  by  being  exposed  to  the  wea- 
ther, and  when  dressed  exhibited  that  fine  silver  green  hue 
by  which  the  Russian  hemp  is  distinguished  ;'^  and  when 
worked  up,  was  pronounced  by  the  rope-makers  to  be  equal 
to  any  hemp  ever  imported !  Here  is  a  lesson  for  our  west- 
ern brethren,  that  is  worth  more  to  them  than  mines  of  silver. 
Clear,  soft,  stagnant  water  is  preferred  in  Europe.  A  canal 
forty  feet  long,  six  broad,  and  four  deep,  is  said  to  be  sufficient 
for  the  produce  of  an  acre  of  flax,  at  one  time.  It  should  be 
formed  on  a  clay  or  some  holding-  soil,  where  the  water  from 
a  spring  or  brook  can  be  conducted  in  with  convenience; 
the  expense  would  not  be  great,  and  on  most  farms  suitable 
sites  may  be  had.  May  not  boiling  or  steaming  be  found 
the  most  advantageous  process  of  preparing  flax  ?  The  very- 
superior  sample  of  thread  exhibited  at  Brighton,  in  1818,  for 
which  Mrs.  Crowninshield,  of  Danvers,  received  a  premium, 
was  spun  from  flax  prepared  by  boiling.  It  appears  by  the 
"  Transactions  of  the  Swedish  Academy,"  that  a  method  was 
practised  in  Sweden  of  preparing  flax  to  resemble  cotton,  by 
boiling  it  ten  hours  in  salt  water,  spreading  on  the  grass, 
and  frequently  watering,  by  which  it  becomes  soft  and 
bleached.  Boiling  or  steaming  will  not  appear  very  formida- 
ble or  expensive  when  we  examine  the  subject.  A  box  twen- 
ty feet  long,  six  feet  wide,  and  four  deep,  well  constructed 
of  stout  planks,  a  boiler,  from  which  a  large  tube  extends 
into  and  communicates  with  the  w^ater  in  the  box,  will  boil 
the  produce  c  f  a  quarter  of  an  acre  in  a  day  ;  that  is,  if  we 

*  The  best  Riga  hemp  supplied  for  the  British  navy  is  prepared  by 
steeping ;  during  which  it  is  shifted  three  times. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  Ill 

allow  double  the  room  to  boil  in  that  is  required  for  steeping. 
A  steam  pipe,  instead  of  the  tube,  and  having  the  top  of  the 
box  well  secured,  would  permit  the  process  of  steaming  to 
go  on.  It  is  probable  that  by  either  method,  spreading  on 
the  grass  will  be  necessary  to  obtain  soft  flax.  The  yarns 
of  which  the  sail  cloth  is  made  at  Paterson  are  all  steamed. 
The  navy  board  expressly  forbid  their  being  boiled  in  alka- 
line lye,  as  is  usual  in  most  manufactures  of  linen.  It  is 
from  this  precaution  that  their  canvas  has  the  pliable,  oily 
feeHng,  which  so  much  recommends  it.  It  should  not  be 
lost  sight  of,  that  by  boiling  or  steaming,  much  time  and  ex- 
pense will  be  saved  in  bleaching. 

'  In  dressing,'  says  Mr.  Pomeroy,  '  our  climate  ^ives  a  de- 
cided advantage  over  Ireland,  Flanders,  or  the  north  of  Eu- 
rope, where  flax  is  dried  on  hurdles,  over  a  peat  fire,  in  ovens, 
or  kilns,  requiring  great  care  in  regulating  the  heat,  to  pre- 
vent injury.  All  this  trouble  and  hazard  is  obviated  by  our 
dry  atmosphere  and  keen  north-west  winds.  Dr.  Deane 
estimated  the  expense  of  dressing  flax  by  hand  at  one-third 
of  the  product.  1  believe  the  present  price  does  not  vary 
much  from  his  estimate.  A  respectable  gentleman  from 
Duchess  county.  New  York,  informed  me  that  mills  or  ma- 
chi  les,  impelled  by  water,  have  been  erected  there,  that  break 
and  completely  dress  the  flax  for  a  toll  of  one-tenth  !  It  is 
said  one  or  more  of  them  are  in  operation  in  the  western 
part  of  this  state.  These  mills  were  invented  in  Scotland, 
and  are  now  said  to  be  brought  to  great  perfection.  They 
are  erected  in  all  directions  in  the  principal  flax  districts  in 
Ireland,  and  notwithstanding  the  low  price  and  limited  de- 
mand for  labor,  are  resorted  to  by  the  poorer  classes  of  peo- 
ple, the  dressing  by  hand  being  mostly  abandoned.  There 
are  machines  in  England  that  dress  the  flax  immediately 
from  the  field,  without  any  preparation  whatever.  An  ac- 
count of  them  may  be  found  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Agricultural  Journal.  It  appears  by  the  report 
of  a  conmiittee  of  the  house  of  commons,  that  in  1817  they 
were  in  successful  operation.  A  man  and  three  children  im- 
pelled the  machines,  and  dressed  sixty  pounds  a  day.  Should 
they  be  susceptible  of  the  application  of  water  or  steam  pow- 
er in  any  degree  proportionate,  the  advantage  may  be  incal- 
culable ;  but  in  the  present  inquiry,  we  place  these  machines, 
however  desirable,  entirely  out  of  the  question. 

Product.  '  It  is  not  uncommon  in  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land to  obtain  eight  hundred  pounds  of  flax  from  an   acre ! 


112  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

Six  hundred  pounds  is  estimated,  in  some  districts,  as  an 
average  ;  but  it  should  be  observed  that  little,  if  any,  seed 
is  obtained.  The  average  crop  in  New  England,  as  far  as 
our  information  extends,  cannot  be  estimated  at  more  than 
two  hundred  pounds,  and  six  or  eight  bushels  of  seed.  (We 
do  not  include  the  rich  bottoms  on  the  Connecticut,  and 
some  other  rivers.)  Dr.  Deane  was  of  opinion,  that  four 
hundred  pounds  might  be  calculated  on  with  proper  ma- 
nagement. 

'  We  think  that  four  hundred  pounds  of  good  clean  flax, 
and  eight  or  ten  bushels  of  seed,  may  fairly  be  assumed  as 
a  medium  crop  on  favorable  soils,  where  the  culture  becomes 
such  an  object  as  to  make  other  farming  operations  subservi- 
ent to  it,  and  due  attention  is  paid  to  change  of  seed. 

'  Those  who  grow  flax  to  any  extent  are  of  opinion  that 
the  seed,  at  the  price  it  has  been  for  some  years  past,  pays 
for  all  the  labor  bestowed  on  the  crop  to  the  time  the  flax 
is  ready  to  be  prepared  or  rotted. 


WHEAT.  To  raise  good  wheat  is  considered,  both  in 
America  and  Europe,  as  an  object  of  prime  consequence  to 
the  cultivator,  and  agricultural  writers  have  of  course  been 
very  voluminous  on  the  subject.  We  shall  select  and  con- 
dense some  of  their  remarks,  which  appear  to  us  of  the  great- 
est importance,  and  add  what  our  own  observation  and  ex- 
perience has  suggested. 

Wheat  is  thought  to  be  the  most  useful  of  the  farinaceous 
plants ;  and  as  the  bounty  of  Providence  has  generally  de- 
creed that  those  things  which  are  most  useful  shall  be  most 
common,  wheat  accordingly  will  grow  in  almost  any  part  of 
the  globe.  It  thrives  not  only  in  temperate,  but  in  very  hot 
and  in  very  cold  regions :  in  Africa  and  Siberia,  as  well  as  in 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  It  requires  a  good 
loamy  soil,  not  too  light  nor  too  heavy.  The  Memoirs  of 
the  New  York  Board  of  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.  p.  28,  state  that 
'  wheat  grows  best  on  land  which  contains  just  as  much  clay 
as  can  be  combined  with  it  without  subjecting  the  wheat  to 
be  frozen  out.'  And  the  author  of  that  article,  Mr.  Amos 
Eaton,  observes,  '  Since  it  is  the  clay  which  absorbs  and 
retains  most  of  the  water  injurious  in  wheat  soils,  I  adopted 
a  rule  for  the  consideration  of  farmers,  founded  on  that  prin- 
ciple, and  confirmed   by   all  the  observations   I  have  been 


AND    RURAL   ECONOMIST. 


113 


enabled  to  make.  Rule. — Wash  a  little  of  the  soil  in  a 
tumbler  of  water,  and  observe  the  time  required  for  it  to  be- 
come clear.  If  the  time  required  exceeds  three  hours,  it 
may  be  considered  as  liable  to  be  injured  by  frost.'  AV.  Van 
Dusen,  a  farmer  of  Rensellaer  county.  New  York,  says  '  that 
if  wheat  be  sowed  the  last  week  in  August,  on  clay  soil,  it 
will  generally  resist  the  effect  of  frost  in  the  winter,  and  of 
insects  in  the  spring.'  '  A  clay  soil,'  according  to  the  same 
work,  '  having  absorbed  a  large  proportion  of  water,  becomes 
cellular  as  the  water  freezes,  or  rises  up  in  various  protube- 
rances, so  that  the  roots  of  the  wheat  plant  become  disengag- 
ed from  their  hold  in  the  soil.  It  is  very  manifest  that  if 
wheat  be  sowed  so  early  that  each  plant  may  have  time  to 
extend  its  roots  into  the  soil,  its  chance  for  retaining  its 
hold  will  be  better.'  We  believe  that  not  only  clay,  but  lime, 
chalk,  marl,  or  other  calcareous  substance,  is  necessary  to 
bring  wheat  to  perfection,  and  the  grounds  of  our  belief  we 
shall  exhibit  hereafter. 

The  Complete  Farmer  says,  that  '  the  best  time  for  sow- 
ing wheat  is  about  the  beginning  of  September.  But  if  the 
earth  be  very  dry,  it  had  better  be  deferred  till  some  show- 
ers have  moistened  the  soil.'  Mr.  Mortimer  says  he  has 
known  Avheat  to  be  so  musted  and  spoiled  by  laying  long  in 
the  ground  before  rain  came,  that  it  never  came  up  at  all ; 
to  which  he  adds,  '  that  he  has  seen  very  good  crops  of 
wheat  from  seeds  sown  in  July.'  We  should  apprehend, 
however,  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  feed  wheat  sown  so 
early,  in  order  to  prevent  its  going  to  seed  the  first  year,  or 
getting  too  far  advanced  in  its  growth  to  resist  the  frosts  of 
the  succeeding  winter.  Sowing  in  dry  ground  is  generally 
recommended  for  seeds  ;  but  wheat,  being  liable  to  be  smutty, 
is  commonly  prepared  by  steeping  in  brine  or  lime,  and  in 
consequence  of  the  steep  vegetation  commences ;  and  if  the 
seed  in  this  state  is  placed  in  earth  which  is  and  continues 
for  any  time  dry,  vegetation  is  checked  by  the  drought, 
which  kills  or  greatly  injures  the  seed. 

Early  sowing  requires  less  seed  than  late,  because  the 
plants  have  more  time,  and  are  more  apt  to  spread,  and  throw 
out  a  good  number  of  stalks.  More  seed  is  required  for  poor 
than  for  rich  lands,  and  rich  land  early  sowed  requires  the 
least  of  any.  Bordley's  Husbandry  says,  '  The  climate  and 
soil  of  America  may  be  believed  to  differ  greatly  from  those 
of  England  respecting  the  growth  of  some  particular  plants. 
Wheat  sown  there  two  to  three  bushels  on  an  acre  yields 
10# 


114  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

great  crops.  Two  bushels  an  acre  sown  in  Maryland  or 
Pennsylvania  would  yield  straw  without  grain.  In  Mary- 
land three  pecks  are  commonly  sown.  I  never  had  better 
crops  than  from  half  a  bushel  of  seed  wheat  to  an  acre,  in  a 
few  instances.  In  these  instances  the  ground  was  perfectly 
clean  and  fine,  after  many  ploughings  or  horse-hoeings  of 
maize,  [Indian  corn,]  on  which  the  wheat  was  sown  in  Sep- 
tember, whilst  the  maize  was  ripening.  It  was  a  clay  loam 
highly  pulverized.  But  because  of  the  loss  of  plants  at  other 
times,  I  preferred  to  sow  three  pecks  an  acre.'  '  Grain  which 
is  thin  so\vii,  says  the  Complete  Farmer,  is  less  apt  to  lodge. 
Every  one  must  have  observed  that  in  places  where  foot- 
paths are  made  through  wheat  fields,  by  the  side  of  the  paths, 
where  the  corn  is  thin,  and  has  been  trodden  down  in  winter 
and  spring,  the  plants  have  stood  erect,  when  most  of  the 
corn  in  the  same  field  has  been  laid  flat  on  the  ground ;  an 
advantage  proceeding  from  the  circumstance  of  the  stalks 
having  more  room.' 

The  Farmer's  Assistant  asserts,  that  '  the  time  for  sowing 
wheat  probably  depends  much  on  previous  habit.  Thus  if 
it  were  sown  a  number  of  successive  years  by  the  middle  of 
August,  and  then  the  time  of  sowing  were  changed  at  once  to 
October,  the  crop  would  probably  be  much  lighter  on  that 
account ;  yet,  where  wheat  has  become  habituated  to  be 
sown  late,  it  will  do  tolerably  well.  The  later  it  is  sown, 
however,  the  more  seed  is  requisite.  When  early  sown,  a 
bushel  to  the  acre  is  believed  to  be  sufficient ;  but  w  hen 
sown  later,  a  bushel  and  a  half,  or  more,  may  be  necessary.' 
The  estimate  of  seed,  however,  should  be  formed  not  so 
much  from  the  capacity  of  any  particular  measure,  as  from 
the  number  of  grains  which  that  measure  contains.  The 
larger  and  fuller  the  seed  is,  the  greater  quantity  by  measure 
will  be  required ;  the  smaller,  the  less  quantity.  Much, 
therefore,  must  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  farmer,  who 
must  take  into  consideration  the  time  of  sowing,  the  quality 
and  preparation  of  the  soil,  as  well  as  the  plumpness  or  the 
shrivelled  state  of  the  seed  wheat. 

If  naked  summer  fallows  are  used  at  all,  they  may  as  well 
be  made  preparatory  to  a  crop  of  w4ieat.  It  may  sometimes 
be  expedient  to  suspend,  for  one  season,  the  raising  of  crops 
of  any  sort  on  land  which  is  exhausted  or  greatly  infested 
with  weeds ;  and  during  the  summer  and  autumn  plough  and 
harrow  it  several  times,  and  thus  thoroughly  subdue  it. 
When  such  a  process  is  adopted,   wheat  is  generally  the 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  115 

succeeding  crop.  The  custom  of  naked  fallowing,  however, 
is  not  much  approved  of  in  modern  husbandry,  and  that 
mode  of  preparing  for  wheat  is  rarely  adopted  by  scientific 
cultivators.  Sir  John  Sinclair  says,  '  The  raising  clean, 
smothering,  green  crops,  and  feeding  stock  with  them  upon 
the  land,  is  not  only  much  more  profitable,  as  far  as  relates 
to  the  value  of  the  crop  substituted  in  lieu  of  a  fallow,  but  is 
also  a  more  eftectual  method  of  procuring  large  crops  of 
wheat,  or  any  other  crop,  which  may  succeed  the  green 
crop.'  There  is  a  disadvantage  sometimes  attending  fallows, 
which  we  apprehend  may  be  more  detrimental  in  our  climate 
than  in  that  of  Great  Britain.  Land  which  is  kept  in  a 
light  and  pulverized  state  is  liable  to  be  washed  away  by  vio- 
lent rains,  and  the  showers  of  our  summer  season  are  usually 
more  plentiful,  and  fall  with  more  impetuosity  than  those  of 
England,  although  the  mean  moisture  is  less,  and  there  is  less 
rain  falls  in  the  course  of  the  year  on  this  than  the  other 
side  of  the  Atlantic. 

In  modern  tillage,  wheat  more  usually  follows  clover  than 
any  other  crop ;  and  Bordley's  Husbandry  says,  '  clover  is 
the  best  preparative  for  a  crop  of  wheat.'  In  such  case, 
English  farmers,  and  indeed  all  others  who  loork  it  rights 
give  but  one  ploughing,  and  harrow  in  the  seed,  by  passing 
the  harrow  twice  in  a  place  the  same  way  with  the  furrows. 
Mr.  Bordley  directs  that  the  operations  of  ploughing,  har- 
rowing, and  sowing,  should  immediately  follow  each  other. 
Mr.  Macro,  an  eminent  English  farmer,  says,  '  From  upwards 
of  twenty  years'  experience  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  best  way 
of  sowing  clover  lands  with  wheat,  is  to  plough  the  land  ten 
or  fourteen,  days  before  you  soio  it,  that  the  land  may  have 
time  to  get  dry,  and  after  rain  to  make  it  dress  well.  I  am 
at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  wheat  thriving  better  on  lands 
which  have  been  ploughed  some  time,  than  it  does  on  fresh 
ploughed  lands  which  dress  as  well  or  better;  but  I  have 
often  tried  both  ways  on  the  same  lands,  and  always  found 
the  former  answer  best.'  Mr.  Bordley,  in  attempting  to  ac- 
count for  this  effect,  says,  '  I  conjecture  that  the  clover  plants 
being  buried  and  the  wheat  sown  at  the  same  time,  they  both 
ferment  and  run  into  heat  in  the  same  period  ;  the  germ 
then  shoots,  and  the  root  is  extremely  delicate  and  tender  for 
some  days ;  during  which,  the  buried  herbage  obtains  its 
highest  degree  of  heat ;  which,  added  to  the  internal  heat  of 
the  germ,  may,  though  only  slightly,  check  and  a  little  in- 
jure the  delicate  shoots  of  the  wheat.     In  sprouting  barley 


116  THE    COMPLETE  FARMER 

for  making  malt,  a  little  excess  of  heat  in  the  bed  checks,  and 
a  little  more  totally  stops  the  sprouting  or  growth  of  the 
roots.  Both  modes  give  crops  superior  to  what  are  produced 
on  fallow.  Farmers  may  well  try  both  methods  for  deter- 
mining which  to  prefer  ;  that  is,  as  well  immediate  sowing, 
on  ploughing  in  the  clover,  as  the  method  of  sowing  not  till 
ten  or  fourteen  days  after  having  ploughed  in  the  clover : 
suppose  a  half  each  way.' 

We  believe  that  wheat  Avould  flourish  better  if  it  were 
buried  deeper  than  it  generally  is  in  broad-cast  sowing.  Our 
opinion  is  founded  on  the  following  facts,  relating  to  the 
physiology  of  the  wheat  plant.  '  A  grain  of  wheat,  when 
put  into  the  ground  at  the  depth  of  three  inches,  undergoes 
the  following  transformations :  as  soon  as  the  farinaceous 
matter  which  envelops  the  frame  of  the  young  plant  con- 
tained within  it  is  softened  into  a  milky  state,  a  germ  is 
pushed  out,  and  at  the  bottom  of  that  germ  small  roots  soon 
follow.  The  roots  are  gathering  strength,  whilst  the  germ, 
by  the  aid  of  the  milky  fluid,  is  shooting  upwards ;  and  when 
the  milk  is  exhausted,  the  roots  are  in  activity,  and  are  col- 
lecting nourishment  for  the  plant  from  the  soil  itself.  This 
is  analogous  to  the  weaning  of  the  young  of  animals,  which 
are  not  abandoned  by  the  mother  till  they  can  provide  for 
themselves.  But  the  care  of  nature  does  not  end  here  ;  when 
the  germ  has  fairly  got  above  the  surface,  and  become  a 
plant,  a  set  of  upper  roots  are  thrown  out,  close  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  which  search  all  the  superficial  parts  of 
the  soil  with  the  same  activity  as  the  under  roots  search  the 
lower  parts ;  and  that  part  of  the  germ  which  separates  the 
two  sets  of  roots  is  now  become  a  channel,  through  which 
the  lower  roots  supply  the  plant  with  the  nourishment  they 
have  collected.  What  an  admirable  contrivance  to  secure 
the  prosperity  of  the  plant !  Two  distinct  sets  of  roots 
serve,  in  the  first  place,  to  fix  the  plant  firmly  in  the  ground, 
and  to  collect  nourishment  from  every  quarter.  The  upper 
roots  are  appositely  situated  to  receive  all  the  nourishment 
that  comes  naturally  from  the  atmosphere,  or  artificially  as 
manure,  to  the 'surface ;  and  serve  the  farther  purpose  of  be- 
ing the  base  of  new  stems,  which  are  tillered  up,  and  so 
greatly  increase  the  productiveness  of  the  plant.  The  ex- 
cellence of  the  drill  system  in  grain  may  be  probably  per- 
ceived in  this  explanation;  for  in  broad-cast  sowing  the 
seeds  lie  very  near  to  the  surface,  and  in  this  situation  it  is 
not  only  more  exposed  to  accidents  arising  from  birds,  in- 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  117 

sects,  and  the  weather,  but  the  two  sets  of  roots  are  neces- 
sarily crowded  together,  so  as  almost  to  become  indistinct ; 
the  plant  is  less  firm,  and  has  fewer  purveyors  collecting 
food  for  it."^ 

Dr.  Deane  observed,  that  '  wheat  that  is  sowed  in  autumn, 
a  clover  ley  excepted,  should,  instead  of  harrowing,  be  co- 
vered with  a  shallow  furrow,  and  the  surface  left  rough.  It 
will  be  less  in  danger  of  being  killed  by  the  frost  in  winter, 
and  less  injured  by  drying  winds  in  the  following  spring. 
The  furrows  should  be  left  without  harrowing ;  for  the  more 
uneven  the  ground  is  the  more  the  soil  will  be  pulverized 
and  mellowed  by  the  frost.'  But  if  the  crop  which  succeeds 
the  wheat  crop  should  require  a  smooth  bottom,  the  land,  after 
sowing,  must  be  harrowed,  and  should  be  rolled.  Some 
husbandmen  advise,  when  wheat  is  sown  on  a  clover  ley,  to 
plough  in  the  clover  with  a  deep  furrow,  then  plough  in  the 
seed  wheat  with  a  shallow  furrow  ;  and  if  the  next  crop  in  the 
rotation  requires  a  level  bottom,  it  will  be  necessary  to  har- 
row and  roll  the  field  as  smooth  as  possible,  after  having 
ploughed  in  the  seed. 

The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  with  regard  to  the 
kind,  quality,  and  preparation  of  seed  wheat.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  wheat,  but  winter  wheat,  in  the  United  States, 
is  generally  distinguished  by  only  two  appellations,  red  wheat 
and  white  wheat,  of  which  the  latter  is  held  in  highest  esti- 
mation. 

In  preparing  your  seed  wheat,  the  first  thing  to  be  attend- 
ed to  is  to  clear  it  perfectly  from  every  injurious  foreign 
substance.  '  One  error  here  may  mar  our  whole  system,  and 
render  our  skill  productive  of  as  much  evil  as  good.  On 
poor  and  worn  out  land  the  evil  of  sowing  a  mixture  of  im- 
pure seed  with  grain  or  grass  seed  would  be  great;  but 
where  the  ground  is  in  high  order  the  crop  is  more  injured; 
the  noxious  plants  take  firmer  hold,  and  are  more  difficult  to 
be  eradicated.'!  Indeed,  it  would  be  better  for  a  farmer  to 
pick  over  his  seed  wheat  by  single  handfuls,  and  make  a  rid- 
dle of  his  fingers,  than  to  sow  cockle,  darnel,  tares,  wild  tur- 
nip seeds,  and  other  vegetable  nuisances,  which  are  as  intru- 
sive as  unwelcome,  as  tenacious  of  life  as  they  are  unworthy 

*  Mr.  Featherstonhaugh's  Essay  on  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Ru- 
ral Economy. 

fSee  a  communication  by  0.  Fiske,  Esq.,  New  England  Farmer,  vol. 
i.  p.  222. 


118  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

of  existence.  The  first  preparation  therefore  should  be  to 
screen,  winnow,  and  riddle  the  grain  till  perfectly  freed  from 
these  and  other  improper  ingredients.  When  this  is  tho- 
roughly accomplished,  washing  and  steeping,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  smut,  should  meet  attention.  The  first 
step  in  the  processes  to  be  instituted  against  smut,  as  recom- 
mended by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  is  '  to  run  the  grain  very  gently 
through  a  riddle,  when  not  only  the  smut  balls,  but  the  im- 
perfect grains,  and  the  seeds  of  weeds,  will  float,  and  may  be 
skimmed  off  at  pleasure.'  The  same  author  enumerates  as 
modes  by  which  smut  maybe  prevented,  1.  The  use  of  pure 
cold  water  and  lime.  2.  Boiling  water  and  lime.  3.  Water 
impregnated  with  salt.  4.  Urine  pickle.  5.  Lye  of  wood 
ashes.  6.  A  solution  of  arsenic.  7.  A  solution  of  blue 
vitriol.  It  seems  that  almost  any  acrid,  corrosive,  or  poison- 
ous application  will  secure  a  clean  crop,  if  properly  used  for 
that  purpose. 

Mr.  Arthur  Young  sowed  fourteen  beds  with  the  same 
wheat  seed,  which  was  black  with  smut.  The  first  bed  was 
sown  with  this  wheat  without  washing,  and  had  three  hun- 
dred and  seventy-seven  smutty  kernels.  A  bed  sowed  with 
seed  washed  in  clean  water  produced  three  hundred  and 
twenty -five  smutty  kernels  ;  Avashed  in  lime  water,  forty- 
three  do. ;  washed  in  lye  of  wood  ashes,  thirty-one  do.  ; 
washed  in  arsenic  and  salt  mixture,  twenty-eight  do.  ;  steeped 
in  lime  water  four  hours,  two  do.  ;  steeped  in  lye  four  hours, 
three  do.  ;  steeped  in  arsenic  four  hours,  one  do.  Again, 
that  which  was  steeped  in  lye,  as  before  mentioned,  twelve 
hours,  had  none  ;  and  that  which  was  steeped  in  the  same 
kind  of  lye  twenty-four  hours  had  none;  that  also  which 
was  steeped  twenty-four  hours  in  lime  water  had  none  ;  that 
steeped  in  arsenic  twenty-four  hours  had  five. 

A  correspondent  of  the  New  England  Farmer,^  (who  is, 
we  believe,  a  practical  and  scientific  agriculturist,  and  whose 
statements  are  worthy  of  implicit  confidence,)  Avith  the  sig- 
nature Berkshire^  in  giving  directions  for  preparing  seed 
wheat,  observes  :  '  The  only  successful  course  is  to  prepare 
the  seed  about  ten  days  before  sowing-time.  This  is  done 
by  selecting  clean  and  plump  seed,  passing  it  through  water 
in  a  tub,  about  half  a  bushel  at  a  time,  and  washing  it  and 
skimming  off  the  matter  that  floats  ;  then  empty  it  into  a 
basket  to  drain,  then  lay  it  on  a  clean  floor  and  rake  in  two 

*  See  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  i.  p.  275. 


AND    RURAL   ECONOMIST.  119 

quarts  of  slacked  lime  and  ono  quart  of  plaster  to  the 
bushel,  and  if  too  dry  sprinkle  on  water,  and  continue  to 
stir  it  until  all  is  covered  with  the  lime  and  plaster.  I-^  this 
way  you  may  proceed  until  you  have  prepared  your  whole 
seed.  Let  it  remain  in  a  heap  one  day,  then  spread  it  and 
move  it  daily,  until  it  becomes  perfectly  dry  ;  it  is  then  fit  to 
sow,  and  you  may  sow  it  if  the  land  should  happen  to  be 
quite  wet.' 

We  shall  now  speak  of  the  liability  of  wheat  to  become 
winter-killed.  The  author  of  Letters  of  Agricola  states,  as 
an  objection  to  the  cultivation  of  wheat  in  Nova  Scotia,  'its 
liability  to  be  thrown  out  in  the  spring,  and  thus  subjeciing 
the  farmer  to  serious  inconveniences,  and  often  disappoint- 
ment of  a  crop.  Grasses  are  not  exempt  from  the  same 
hazard  ;  and  the  hopes  of  the  year  are  thus  blasied  by  a 
cau.se  which,  in  many  cases,  will  admit  of  remedy,  in  all,  of 
alleviation.  I  am  not  sure  but  sowing  the  wdieat  seed  under 
furrow,  at  least  four  or  five  inches  deep,  in  September,  in 
order  that  i'  may  extend  its  roots  and  take  a  firm  hold  of  the 
soil  before  the  approach  of  winter,  and  rolling  it  in  the 
spring  with  the  box  heavily  loaded,  would  obviate  the  evils 
of  our  climate,  and  enable  us  to  cultivate  that  grain  accord- 
ing to  the  improved  modes  of  England.  It  ought  to  be  re- 
collected that  even  there,  about  sixty  years  ago,  winter  wheat 
was  not  of  general  cultivation,  and  the  heaving  of  the  soil 
was  accounted  a  powerful  obstacle  to  its  success.  In  Scot- 
land, too,  during  the  same  period,  spring  wheat  almost  uni- 
versally prevailed;  and  her  northern  and  bleak  position  was 
thought  to  be  incapable  of  any  change  to  the  better,  and  ut- 
terly unfriendly  to  autumnal  semination.  The  zeal  and  indus- 
try of  British  farmers,  combined  with  their  skill,  have  bafiled 
all  these  gloomy  predictions,  and  taught  us  at  once  to  copy 
the  example  of  our  sires,  and  not  to  despair  in  the  race  of 
improvement.' 

A  method,  according  to  the  same  author,  made  use  of  in 
Norfolk,  England,  to  guard  wheat  against  the  changes  and 
inclemency  of  winter  and  spring,  is  to  adopt  the  following 
rotation  :  '  After  a  turnip  crop,  they  sow  barley  the  second 
year  with  clover  seeds  ;  the  third  year  they  cut  hay,  and 
plough  down  the  ley,  and  sow  their  winter  wheat  on  the 
matted  sod.  The  roots  of  the  grass  bind  the  soil,  and  pre- 
vent it  from  heaving,  which  is  much  akin  to  the  same  effect 
produced  by  the  tangled  and  bound  surface  of  our  new  and 
cleared  lands.'     This  fact  may  suggest   another  inducement 


120  THE    COBIPLETE    FARMER 

to  SOW  wheat  next  in  rotation  after  clover,  as  has  been  re- 
commended. 

It  is  well  known  that  our  lands,  where  the  soil  is  at  all 
suitable,  will  produce  good  crops  of  wheat  when  first  cleared 
from  their  native  growth  of  wood  ;  but  after  having  been 
tilled  for  some  years,  they  generally  yield  wheat  with  diffi- 
culty, and  it  is  often  found  impossible  to  raise  it  by  any  of 
the  modes  commonly  adopted  for  wheat  culture.  In  most 
parts  of  Massachusetts,  and  in  some  parts  of  New  Hamp- 
shire and  Vermont,  the  farmers  scarcely  ever  attempt  to 
raise  wheat,  and  still  more  rarely  succeed  when  they  do  at- 
tempt it.  Yet,  we  believe,  wheat  was  a  common  and  pro- 
fitable crop  in  those  places  in  the  early  period  of  their  set- 
tlement. In  process  of  time,  however,  the  land  became  ex- 
hausted of  its  wheat-bearing  faculty,  and  our  farmers  were 
forced  nearly  to  forego  its  cultivation.  The  same  variations 
and  appearances  have  likewise  been  observed  in  Europe. 
Wheat  countries,  by  continued  cultivation,  have  become 
almost  incapable  of  yielding  wheat.  The  cause  and  remedy 
of  this  partial  barrenness,  this  falling  off,  with  regard  to  par- 
ticular plants,  was  alike  involved  in  obscurity,  till  modern 
discoveries  in  chemistry  threw  light  on  the  subject.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  texture  of  every  soil  is  defective  unless 
there  is  a  mixture  of  three  kinds  of  earth,  viz.,  clay,  sand, 
and  lime  ;  and  that  lime,  in  some  of  its  combinations,  exists 
in  wheat,  both  in  the  straw  and  kernel.  In  some  soils,  fer- 
tile in  other  respects,  lime  may  either  have  no  existence,  or 
be  found  in  very  minute  portions,  and  be  soon  exhausted. 
If  lime  be  a  necessary  constituent  of  wheat,  and  is  not  in 
the  soil  where  wc  attempt  to  raise  wheat,  it  must  be  sup- 
plied by  art,  or  wheat  will  not  grow.  Or  if  native  lime 
exists  in  the  soil  in  small  quantities,  the  land  may  bear 
wheat  till  the  lime  is  exhausted,  and  then  become  incapable 
of  producing  that  plant,  till  a  fresh  supply  of  lime,  marl,  pul- 
verized bones,  or  some  other  calcareous  substance,  is  added. 
Mr.  Young  says,  (Letters  of  Agricola,  p.  299,)  '  It  cannot 
be  denied,  that  since  the  plentiful  use  of  lime  has  been 
adopted,  lands  in  Europe  will  produce  wheat  which  other- 
wise were  incapable  of  bearing  it ;'  and  quotes  several  in- 
stances in  proof  of  this  assertion.  Dr.  Anderson  likewise 
gives  an  account  of  a  field  which  had  a  top-dressing  of  lime 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  wheat,  but  the  lime,  by  accident, 
was  not  applied  to  a  small  patch  of  the  field,  and  in  that 
patch  there  was  no  crop,  while  every  part  of  the  field  to 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  121 

which  the  lime  was  applied  produced  wheat  luxuriantly.  It 
would  be  easy  to  adduce  many  more  instances  to  prove  that 
lime,  in  (Jreat  Britain,  is  considered  not  only  useful,  but 
indispensable  for  the  production  of  wheat.  A  British  farmer, 
W3  believe,  rarely  undertakes  to  raise  wheat  loithout  the  use 
of  lime,  and  an  American  farmer  as  rarely  undertakes  to 
raise  it  with  the  use  of  that  substance  for  manure. 

If  the  foregoing  premises  are  correct,  it  would  seem  not 
impossible,  and  indeed  scarcely  improbable,  that  by  the  judi- 
cious use  of  lime,  or  other  calcareous  substances,  wheat  may 
be  as  well  raised  in  New  England  as  in  the  western  states. 
The  subject  is  certainly  of  very  great  importance,  and  de- 
serves repeated  experiments. 

It  will  be  objected  against  the  use  of  lime,  1st,  that  it  is 
too  dear  to  be  used  for  manure  ;  and,  2dly,  that  our  farmers 
do  not  know  how  to  apply  it,  and,  as  it  is  a  powerful  sub- 
stance, it  may  do  more  harm  than  good,  unless  in  the  hands 
of  a  '  hemist,  or  one  practically  acquainted  with  its  operation. 
With  regard  to  the  dearness  of  lime,  we  are  informed  that 
there  is  no  want  of  limestone  in  almost  every  part  of  the 
United  States ;  and  probably,  by  proper  search,  many  more 
limestone  quarries  might  be  discovered  in  New  England 
than  are  at  present  known.  And  the  price  of  lime  would, 
doubtless,  be  diminished  by  increasing  the  demand,  because 
if  great  quantities  were  wanted  for  agricultural  purposes,  a 
greater  number  of  persons  would  find  their  account  in  making 
a  business  of  manufacturing  it ;  improvements  would  be  in- 
troduced in  the  processes  connected  with  its  manufacture, 
and  of  course  it  would  be  afforded  cheaper.  Besides,  small 
quantities  would  alone  be  needed  for  the  purpose  of  furnish- 
ing that  calcareous  matter  which  nature  inclines  to  incorpo- 
rate into  the  substance  of  wheat,  clover,  &c.,  and  probably  a 
top-dressing  of  two  or  three  bushels  to  the  acre  would  be  of 
essential  benefit,  though  doubtless  more  would,  generally,  be 
preferable.  Mr.  Young  says  '  a  small  quantity  of  quicklime 
scattered  on  the  surface  of  lands  newly  cleared  will  prove 
highly  beneficial  during  the  whole  length  of  time  they  re- 
main untilled.  Thirty  bushels  of  shells  [lime  fresh  from  the 
kiln]  to  the  acre,  slacked  into  a  fine  powder,  will  produce 
the  most  surprising  eflfects,  if  not  on  the  first  crop  of  wheat, 
at  all  events,  on  the  verdure,  luxuriance,  and  quality  of  the 
future  pasture."^     A  writer  in   the  Museum  Rusticum,   an 

*  Letters  of  Agricola. 
11 


122  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

English  work,  says,  '  that  he  sows  his  wheat  without  laying 
on  any  manure,  but,  early  in  the  spring,  gives  a  top-dressing 
of  twenty  bushels  of  lime,  pulverized,  and  mixed  intimately 
with  forty  bushels  of  sand ;  and  if  the  weather  be  d.y,  he 
doubles  the  quantity  of  sand.'  We  are  disposed  to  believe 
that  at  least  lime  enough  for  light  top-dressings  might  be 
easily  procured  by  alniost  every  cultivator  in  the  Union. 
And  such  light  dressings,  if  our  theory  is  correct,  would  be 
all  that  is  indispensable  to  the  production  of  wheat. 

With  regard  to  the  mode  of  applying  lime,  nothing  can 
be  more  simple.  It  should  be  evenly  spread,  after  being 
water  slacked,  on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  not  ploughed 
in,  or,  if  ploughed  in,  it  should  be  with  a  very  shallow  fur- 
row, because  its  tendency  is  to  sink  below  the  reach  of  culti- 
vation. If  used  in  a  quick  or  burning  state,  it  will  be  safest 
to  mix  it  with  about  double  its  quantity  of  sand,  loam,  clay, 
or  some  other  material.  The  additional  material  may  be 
made  to  correspond  with  the  wants  of  the  soil  to  which  it  is 
applied.  Thus,  if  the  soil  has  too  much  clay,  mix  sand  with 
your  lime  :  if  too  much  sand,  mix  finely  pulverized  clay,  &c. 

It  is  said  that  British  farmers  apply  lime  in  great  quanti- 
ties directly  from  the  kiln  in  its  most  caustic  state,  even  to 
land  which  is  replete  with  putrescent  or  vegetable  manure, 
and  run  the  risk  of  consuming  or  wasting  the  manure  by  its 
corrosive  qualities.  But  the  soil  of  Great  Britain  is  generally 
wetter  than  ours,  and  of  course  the  lime  sooner  becomes 
mild.  Besides,  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  strength  of 
lime,  and  that  of  the  United  States  may  be,  generally  speak- 
ing, stronger  than  the  English  lime.  In  short,  we  should 
advise  every  farmer  to  use  quicklime  as  manure,  in  small 
quantities  at  first,  mixed  with  a  large  proportion  of  earth,  or 
some  other  substance,  to  dilute  it,  and  thus  take  care  not  to 
burn  his  seed,  his  fingers,  or  his  growing  vegetables.  And 
with  these  precautions,  we  would  make  use  of  it  for  wheat 
as  a  top-dressing  in  spring.  We  would  likewise  try  it  mixed 
with  wood  ashes,  together  with  earth  ;  for  we  have  been 
told  by  a  practical  farmer,  that  ashes  and  lime  form  a  union 
much  more  valuable  than  either  separate. 

In  an  article  on  the  culture  of  winter  wheat,  by  R.  H. 
Gardener,  Esq.,  of  Gardiner,  Maine,  the  writer  observes, 
*  The  cultivation  of  winter  wheat  is  preferable  to  that  of  sum- 
mer on  a  great  variety  of  accounts.  It  is  sown  and  the 
ground  prepared  in  a  season  of  much  greater  leisure.  One 
of  the  great  disadvantages  of  our  northern  climate  is  the 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  123 

extreme  shortness  of  our  spring,  so  that  it  is  difficult  for  our 
farmers  to  complete  the  work  which  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  be  done,  after  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  and  before 
the  season  of  planting  is  over.  If,  therefore,  any  work,  as 
the  sowing  of  wheat,  can  be  advantageously  postponed  till 
the  autunm,  it  is  of  great  importance.  The  winter  wheat  is 
less  liable  to  injury  from  insects  than  the  summer;  mine  has 
never  suifered  from  them.  It  affords  good  fall  feed,  and  the 
larger  quantity  of  roots  and  stubble  to  be  ploughed  in  makes 
the  land  in  a  better  state  for  the  next  crop.  The  grain  is 
heavier,  and  the  same  number  of  pounds  will  yield  a  larger 
quantity  of  flour,  and  of  a  much  superior  quality.  From  my 
experience,  I  should  recommend  that  winter  wheat  should 
not  be  sowed  later  than  the  middle  of  September,  that  the 
soil  on  which  it  is  sowed  should  be  of  a  light  loam,  and  that 
about  five  pecks  of  seed  be  sou^n  to  the  acre.  I  have  also 
found  the  use  of  plaster  on  wheat  advantageous,  as  also  roll- 
ing the  wheat,  after  it  is  weli  up. 

To  procure  new  varieties  of  wheats,  (says  Mr.  Loudon,) 
the  ordinary  mode  is  to  select  from  a  field  a  spike  or  spikes 
from,  the  same  stalk  which  has  the  qualities  sought  for,  such 
as  larger  grains,  thinner  chaft,  stiffer  strawy  a  tendency  to 
eirliness  or  lateness,  &:c.  ;  and  picking  out  the  best  grains 
from  such  ear  or  ears,  to  sow  them  in  suitable  soil,  in  an 
open,  airy  part  of  a  garden.  When  the  produce  is  ripe,  se- 
lect the  best  ears,  and  from  these  the  best  grains,  and  sow 
these  ;  and  so  on,  till  a  bushel  or  more  is  obtained,  which 
may  then  be  sown  in  a  field  apart  from  any  other  wheat.  In 
this  way  many  of  the  varieties  of  the  common  winter  wheat 
have  been  obtained. =^  Other  varieties  have  assumed  their 
distinctive  marks  from  having  been  long  cultivated  on  the 
same  scil  and  climate,  and  take  local  names,  as  the  Hertford- 
shire red,  Essex  white,  &c. 

Marshall  (Yorkshire)  mentions  a  case  in  which  a  man  of 
accurate  observation,  having  in  a  piece  of  wheat  perceived  a 
plant  of  uncommon  strength  and  luxuriance,  diffusing  its 
branches  on  every  side,  marked  it,  at  harvest  gathered  it 
separately,  and  thus  introduced  a  new  and  superior  variety. 

Jonathan  Townsend,  of  Andover,  Connecticut,  gives  the 
following  directions  for  obtaining  good  crops  of  wheat,  pre- 
ceded by  Indian  corn, 

'  Select  a  piece  of  ground  suitable  for  Indian   corn   and 

*  See  also  N.  E.  Farmer,  vol.  x.  p.  309. 


124  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

winter  gram ;  spread  on  evenly  twenty  common  cart  loads 
or  upwards  of  stable  and  yard  manure  to  the  acre ;  ploug'h 
it  in  just  three  inches  deep  and  no  more;  harrow  it  length- 
wise of  the  furrow  ;  cross  mark  for  the  rows,  three  and  a  half 
feet  for  the  small,  or  four  feet  for  the  large  kind  of  corn  :  let 
the  corn  be  properly  tended,  by  keeping  the  ground  loose 
with  the  plough  and  hoe  and  free  from  weeds ;  and  if  the 
season  is  not  very  unpropitious,  you  may  calculate  on  a 
large  crop.  But  if  the  ground  is  hard  and  stony,  so  that  it 
cannot  be  ploughed  shallow  as  above  mentioned,  then  plough 
as  shallow  as  possible,  and  spread  on  the  manure  afterwards 
and  harrow  it  in,  and  proceed  as  above  directed;  the  crop 
will  not  probably  disappoint  your  expectations.  As  soon  as 
the  corn  has  become  ripe,  or  too  hard  to  roast,  and  if  possi- 
ble before  ii  is  touched  with  frost,  cut  it  up,  bind  and  carry 
it  out  of  the  field,  and  shock  it  in  the  usual  way.  If  you 
have  drawn  the  earth  around  your  corn  into  hills,  (which  I 
would  advise  never  to  do  in  any  case,)  harrow  the  hills  down 
with  a  heavy  harrow,  plough  three  inches  deep,  and  spread 
on  evenly  four  or  five  loads  of  well  rotted  manure,"^  and  sow 
three  pecks  of  good  clear  wheat  to  the  acre,  and  plough  it  in 
with  a  light  horse  plough  ;  and  unless  something  disastrous 
happens,  the  summer  following  your  garner  may  be  filled 
with  the  finest  wheat.  The  same  directions  will  apply  to 
ground  planted  with  potatoes.  1  would  insure  a  crop  sown 
on  ground  thus  managed  for  ten  per  cent,  less  than  if  sown 
on  a  summer  fallow  in  the  ordinary  way.' 

Wheat  is  subject  to  several  diseases ;  the  most  common 
and  generally  injurious  are  mildew  or  rust  and  smut.  Some 
writers  assert  that  mildew  is  caused  by  a  minute  parasitic 
fungus  or  mushroom,  which  fastens  on  the  leaves  and  glumes 
or  stems  of  the  living  plant.  The  roots  of  this  fungus,  in- 
tercepting the  S3p  intended  by  nature  for  the  nourishment 
of  the  grain,  render  it  lean  and  shrivelled,  rob  it  of  its  flour, 
and  the  straw  becomes  black  and  rotten,  unfit  for  fodder. 

Mr.  Butler,  in  The  Farmer's  Mamcal,  says,  in  substance, 
that  the  rust  on  wheat  commences  in  July,  at  the  time  of 
the  filling  of  the  kernel  in  the  ear,  when  a  combination  of 
heat  and  moisture  bring  into  action  rich  manures,  and  forces 


*  It  has  general!}''  been  advised  not  to  apply  manure  to  a  wheat  crop 
the  same  year  the  wheat  is  sown,  but  the  small  quantity  mentioned  above 
•would,  perhaps,  serve  as  a  top-dressins:,  without  giving  too  great  luxuri- 
ance to  the  straw,  and  cause  it  to  be  mildewed  or  blasted. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  125 

into  the  straw,  which  has  now  finished  its  growth,  more  juices 
than  the  kernel  can  take  up,  being  already  filled  out.  These 
juices  burst  the  straw,  or  pass  through  the  natural  pores  of 
the  stalk.  When  these  juices  come  to  the  air,  they  lose  by 
evaporation  their  thinner  parts,  become  glutinous,  and  form 
the  matter  called  rust  or  mildew. 

Willich's  Ericyclopedia  observes,  '  Common  wheat  is  more 
subject  to  this  destructive  disease  than  that  which  is  bearded, 
especially  if  the  land  has  been  iieicly  dunged.'  Other  writers, 
likewise,  attribute  this  disorder  to  the  application  of  fresh 
dung,  in  too  great  quantity. 

The  remedies  against  rust  or  mildew,  according  to  Sir 
John  Sinclair,  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Cultivating  hardy  sorts  of  wheat. 

2.  Early  sowing. 

3.  Raising  early  varieties. 

4.  Thick  sowing. 

5.  Changes  of  seed. 

6.  Consolidating  the  soil. 

7.  Using  saline  manures. 

8.  Improving  the  course  of  crops  ;  and, 

9.  Extirpating  all  plants  that  are  receptacles  of  rust. 

10.  Protecting  the  wheat  plants  by  rye,  tares,  and  other 
crops.  The  above  remedies  are  enlarged  upon  by  Sir  John 
Sinclair,  in  The  Code  of  Agriculture,  but  his  observations 
are  too  voluminous  to  quote  at  large  in  this  place. 

Very  able  and  instructive  essays  on  the  culture  of  wheat, 
by  the  Rev.  Henry  Colman,  of  Greenfield,  Massachusetts, 
were  published  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  xii,  pages 
25,  49,  57,  65,  73.  Mr.  Colman  gives  in  detail  many  expe- 
riments, some  of  which  were  made  by  himself  He  states, 
in  substance,  that  he  sowed  three  acres  of  winter  wheat  on 
some  of  the  best  land  in  the  Deerfield  (Mass.)  meadows. 
The  land  was  green  sward,  turned  up  in  the  fall,  rolled  and 
harrowed,  and  the  seed  soaked  in  brine,  limed,  and  sowed  at 
the  rate  of  two  and  a  half  bushels  to  the  acre,  on  the  27th  of 
October.  One-half  the  field  was  abundantly  manured,  and 
to  the  ether  no  manure  was  applied.  The  seed  came  up 
finely,  and  nothing  could  exceed  the  beauty  and  luxuriance 
of  the  growth,  a  greater  part  of  the  field  averaging  more  than 
five  feet  in  height. 

'  Above  half  the  field,  including  an  equal  portion  of  the 
manured  and  that  not  manured,  was  passed  over  twice  in 
the  spring,  after  the  grain  had  got  to  be  six  inches  in  height, 
11# 


126  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

with  a  light  harrow  drawn  by  one  yoke  of  oxen ;  and  three 
weeks  after  was  subjected  to  the  same  process,  according  to 
the  method  practised  in  France,  as  mentioned  by  the  late 
president  of  the  New  York  Agricultural  society,  in  his  re- 
cent communication  to  that  body.  The  eflect  of  this  was  to 
destroy  very  few  of  the  plants,  and  to  render  the  growth  of 
what  remained  much  more  luxuriant,  producing  such  an  in- 
crease of  the  stem  and  such  an  extension  of  the  heads,  as  to 
attract  the  notice  of  the  most  casual  observer,  and  to  induce 
several  persons,  who  were  ignorant  of  the  process  to  which  it 
had  been  subjected,  to  inquire  for  the  cause  of  the  difference 
in  the  two  parts  of  the  field,  and  to  ask  if  a  different  kind  of 
seed  had  been  used. 

'  After  all,  however,  to  my  extreme  disappointment,  the 
whole  field  has  been  blasted,  and  I  shall  hardly  get  back  the 
amount  of  the  seed  sown,  and  that  in  a  small  shrivelled  grain. 
The  crop  is  housed,  but  will  scarcely  repay  the  expense  of 
threshing. 

'  Now  that  this  result  was  not  owdng  to  the  use  of  stable 
dung  is  obvious,  because  none  was  used  ;  and  in  that  part 
of  the  field  where  the  blight  appeared  to  commence,  and  to 
make  most  rapid  progress,  no  manure  whatever  was  used. 

'  It  was  not  owing  to  the  want  of  the  specific  property  in 
the  soil,  as  far  as  that  is  to  be  found  in  lime  and  slaughter- 
house manure,  for  both  of  th'^se  were  employed;  the  seed 
was  limed,  and  the  above  manure  copiously  applied. 

'It  is  not  to  b2  attributed  to  the  luxuriance  of  the  crop, 
for  several  pieces,  as  I  learn  in  my  neighborhood,  have  suf- 
fered equally  and  from  the  same  cause,  when  the  cultivation 
was  by  no  means  so  high. 

'  It  is  not  a  time  of  universal  failure,  for  a  good  deal  in 
this  vicinity  is  perfectly  healthy  and  sound,  and  I  have  al- 
ready reaped  on  the  same  farm  a  small  piece  of  wheat,  say 
half  an  acre,  on  higher  land,  which  was  healthy  and  fair, 
though  from  the  condition  of  the  land  it  gave  but  a  small 
product.  This,  however,  though  sowed  at  the  same  time, 
was  ready  for  the  sickle  more  than  a  week  sooner  than  the 
other,  from  the  drier  and  poorer  quality  of  the  soil. 

'  What  then  was  the  cause  of  the  blast  ?  I  will  not  as- 
sume to  decide  this  question,  but  as  far  as  appears,  it  was 
atmospheric,  occurring  at  a  particular  state  of  the  plant, 
which  rendered  it  peculiarly  liable  to  blight.  As  the  wheat 
was  filling  fast,  we  had  frequent  showers,  and  much  of  what 
we  Yankees  call  muggy  weather  ;  one  day  in  particular  the 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  127 

air  was  sultry,  the  heat  intense,  and  the  showers  frequent, 
with  intervals  of  sunshine,  and  the  earth  was  steaming  most 
profusely.  An  intelligent  farmer  in  my  employ,  accustomed 
to  the  cultivation  of  this  gniin  in  one  of  the  best  wheat  dis- 
tricts in  New  York,  remarked  to  me  that  this  was  very  se- 
vere weather  for  my  wheat,  and  that  he  feared  I  should  lose 
it.  The  rust  in  fact  appeared  for  the  first  time  the  next  day, 
and  rapidly  extended  itself  over  the  whole  field,  presenting 
no  difference  either  ir  the  manured  or  in  the  parts  of  the  field 
not  marured,  and  of  course  less  luxuriant.  Had  my  wheat 
been  sown  earlier,  so  as  to  have  been  farther  advanced,  it 
would  probably  have  escaped  the  blight ;  had  it  been  sown 
later,  so  as  not  to  have  been  so  far  advanced  as  it  was,  per- 
haps, I  should  have  been  as  fortunate  ;  but  the  occurrence 
of  such  a  peculiar  state  of  the  atmosphere  being  wholly  ac- 
cidental, at  least  as  far  as  we  are  concerned,  it  is  impossible 
to  make  any  certain  calculation  about  it.' 

In  the  succeeding  number,  Mr.  Colman  quotes  Sir  John 
Sinclair's  General  Report  of  the  Agriculture  of  Scotland, 
Husbandry  of  Scotlan  I,  a  difl^erent  work,  by  the  same  au- 
thor, and  a  Treatise  on  Rural  Affairs,  by  John  Brown,  of 
Markle,  to  show  that  wet  and  warm  weather,  when  the  ker- 
nel was  beginning  to  form,  had  usually  been  accompanied 
with  mildew  in  wheat,  in  Great  Britain.  In  No.  Ill,  the 
writer  states  in  substance,  that  the  crops  of  wheat,  both 
summer  and  winter,  have  been  in  this  vicinity  good  and 
abundant,  and  on  an  average  full  twenty  bushels  to  the  acre. 
In  the  towu  of  Northfield,  Massachusetts,  '  where  three  years 
since  the  article  was  scarcely  cultivated,  I  have  heard  the 
crops  of  this  year  (1833)  rated  as  high  as  seven  thousand 
bushels.  I  think  this  must  be  an  over-estimate ;  but  any 
thing  like  an  approach  to  this,  or  even  an  adequate  supply 
for  the  population  of  the  town,  M^hich  is  believed  to  be  fully 
secured,  is  certainly  a  considerable  event  in  our  agricultural 
history.' 

The  writer  states  that  William  Pomroy,  of  Northfield, 
Massachusetts,  from  twenty-three  acres  of  old  meadow  land, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Connecticut,  harvested  more  than  five 
hundred  bushels  of  winter  and  spring  wheat,  '  of  as  fine  a 
sample  as  ever  floated  on  the  Erie  canal.  A  part  of  it  was 
reckonei  to  yield  fully  thirty  bushels  to  the  acre.'  Most  of 
this  wheat  was  sowed  very  early,  and  was  too  forward  to  be 
injured  by  the  sultry  and  foggy  weather  of  July.  One  piece, 
however,  was  blighted  in  consequence  of  late  sowing.     He 


128  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

likewise  states  facts  relative  to  the  culture  and  circumstances 
attending  crops  of  wheat  grown  by  William  Wells,  Esq.,  in 
Shelburne,  Mr.  Charles  Williams,  of  the  same  place ;  Mr. 
Orrin  Dole,  of  Deeriield ;  Mr.  Augustus  Wells  and  John 
Wilson,  Esq.,  of  the  same  place;  Dr.  Hastings,  captain 
Bastings,  Mr.  Morton,  and  major  Porter,  of  Hatfield,  Massa- 
chusetts; Mr.  Ames  and  Hooker  Leavit,  Esq.,  of  Greenfield, 
Massachusetts ;  Mr.  William  Russell,  of  Middletown,  Con- 
necticut; Mr.  Jeremiah  Wadsworth,  of  Hartford  ;  Dr.  Payne, 
of  Worcester;  and  Justin  Ely,  Esq.,  of  West  Springfield. 

Mr.  Colman  states  that  '  Early  sowing,  from  the  best  ob- 
servation I  have  made  of  the  wheat  crops  which  have  come 
under  my  notice,  from  the  united  and  decided  opinion  of  the 
British  wheat  growers,  and  from  many  American  authori- 
ties, is  to  be  strongly  advised.  The  reason  is  obvious :  the 
wheat  crop  should  be  as  far  advanced  in  the  spring  as  possi- 
ble, that  it  may  perfect  its  seed  before  the  hot  and  sultry 
weather  usual  in  July.' 

Sir  John  Sinclair  says,  '  If  a  field  be  evidently  aflfected 
[with  mildew]  and  the  progress  of  vegetation  stopped,  the 
only  way  to  preserve  the  straw  and  the  grain,  if  any  has 
been  formed,  from  being  entirely  lost,  is  to  cut  it  down  imme- 
diately, even  though  the  crop  should  not  be  ripe.  The  straw 
is  thus  preserved,  either  for  food  or  litter,  and  it  is  maintain- 
ed that  any  nourishment  in  the  stem  will  pass  into  and  feed 
the  grain,  and  make  a  greater  return  than  could  well  be  ex- 
pected.' 

Black  Sea  Wheat.  Paj^son  Williams,  Esq.,  of  Fitch- 
burg,  Massachusetts,  has  introduced  into  this  country  a  new 
kind  of  wheat  with  the  above  appellation,  which  he  has  thus 
described  in  a  communication  published  in  the  Northern 
Farmer. 

The  wheat  mentioned  by  you  as  gro\^^l  by  me  the  past 
season  I  not  only  consider  as  a  remarkable  crop  in  quantity, 
fifty-five  bushels  and  three  quarters,  (it  being  spring  wheat,) 
but  very  excellent  in  quality.  Its  history,  so  far  as  I  am 
able,  shall  be  given.  Three  years  since,  my  brother,  captain 
Stephen  Williams,  brought  me  one  bushel  from  Smyrna, 
which  he  obtained,  as  he  informed  me,  from  a  ship  while  dis- 
charging a  cargo  of  that  kind  of  grain  from  the  abundant 
shores  cf  the  Black  sea;  hence  its  name.  Observing  by  the 
map  that  we  were  in  about  the  same  latitude,  I  made  trial 
the  first  season  of  but  one  peck,  (not  being  certain  that  it 
was  spring  wheat.)     The  product  was  large  in  straw ;  but 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  129 

owins:  to  our  impropitious  storms  and  bud  weather  for  a 
wheat  crop,  the  kernel  was  not  so  fair  as  the  original.  No- 
thing discouraged,  however,  I  sowed  from  this  product  rather 
than  the  original  ;  the  product  from  which  more  than  an- 
swered my  expectation.  From  this  last  product  I  sowed, 
the  19th  of  last  April,  two  bushels  and  a  quarter  on  one  atre 
of  land  which  had  potatoes  grown  on  it  the  previous  year, 
(crop,  six  hundred  and  thirteen  bushels  and  a  half.)  This 
field,  immediately  previous  to  sowing,  had  been  ploughed 
deej)  and  fine.  After  the  grain  w^as  harrowed  in  across  the 
furrows  the  field  was  rolled  in,  and  left  from  that  time  to 
putting  in  the  sickle.  1  would  here  observe,  however,  that 
my  usual  custom  has  been  to  sow  on  about  twenty  bushels 
of  good  unleached  wood  ashes  to  the  acre,  so  soon  as  the 
wheat  plants  are  two  inches  in  height,  and  in  a  damp  morn- 
ing, if  ^uch  can  be  had.  The  value  of  such  dressing  I  have 
considered  to  consist,  1st,  in  the  caustic  quality  of  the 
ashes,  as  it  is  a  preventive  to  the  ravages  of  the  white  mag- 
got which  sometimes  preys  at  the  roots  of  the  young  plants  ; 
2d,  considered  as  a  manure  rr  top-dressing,  it  no  doubt  con- 
tributes to  the  earlier  perfecting  the  kernel  or  berry,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  a  more  vigorous  growth  of  the  straw. 

The  seed  was  prepared  as  usual,  by  stirring  into  the  heap 
thick  whitewash  made  from  quicklime,  until  every  kernel 
received  a  coat  of  the  same ;  say  one  quart  of  unslacked 
lime  to  each  bushel  of  wheat.  I  prefer  lime  to  lye  made  of 
wood  ashes,  [only]  on  account  of  its  whiteness,  thereby 
rendering  it  easier  to  throw  the  seed  (broad-cast)  more  even- 
ly on  the  field. 

The  character  of  the  soil  is  a  deep  loam,  intermixed  with 
cobble  stones.  Its  natural  forest  growth  had  been  oak,  (white 
and  red,)  beech,  rock  maple,  chestnut,  and  hemlock. 

The  character  of  the  wheat  appears  to  differ  from  our 
usual  kinds,  by  the  straw  being  much  taller  ;  (some  of  which 
was  five  feet  ten  inches  in  height  ;)  and  although  it  is  w^hat 
we  call  bearded,  and  the  heads  of  two  varieties,  similar  in 
appearance  to  our  red  and  white,  yet  there  is  a  variety,  (say 
a  sixth  part  perhaps,)  which,  notwithstanding  the  head  is 
short,  yet  the  kernels  are  so  closely  set  that  I  have  repeat- 
edly counted  over  eighty  kernels  from  one  ear  or  head. 
This  variety  I  call  the  pearl,  from  its  clear  appearance.  The 
kernel  throughout  the  crop  was  very  plump  and  large  ;  the 
straw  stout  as  w^ell  as  tall,  bearing  the  beating  of  our  New 
England  storms  better  than  any  I  have  heretofore  grown.     1 


130  THE    COMPLETE    FAHMER 

ha/e  not  the  least  doubt  but  it  will  succeed  well  where  other 
varieties  have  prospered,  and  have  no  hesitation  in  believing 
it  will  be  a  valuable  acquisition  for  many  years  to  come  to 
the  agricultural  interests  of  our  country  ;  which,  aside  from 
selfish  considerations,  I  most  heartily  reciprocate  your  views 
in  wishing  to  advance,  believing  this  to  be  the  chief  corner- 
stone of  our  happy  republic. 

In  the  mean  time,  if  this  contains  any  thing  which  you 
may  think  will  subserve  the  interests  of  agriculture,  you  are 
at  liberty  to  publish  the  same. 

\  our  obedient  servant, 

PAYSON  WILLIAMS. 


RYE.  The  farmer  who  has  it  in  his  power  to  drive  his 
busiixcss,  instead  of  being  driven  by  it,  will  do  well  to  sow 
his  winter  rye  some  time  between  the  middle  of  August  and 
the  middle  of  September.  If  it  be  sowed  so  early  it  will  be 
less  apt  to  winter 'kill,  will  require  less  seed,  the  growth  will 
be  stouter,  and  the  produce  greater,  other  things  being  equal, 
than  if  the  sowing  was  deferred  till  late  in  autumn. 

Some  foreign  writers  on  agriculture  assure  us  that  winter 
rye  and  spring  rye  are  of  the  same  species ;  and  the  Far- 
mer's Assistant  says  '  there  is  but  one  kind  of  rye ;  but  this 
may  be  made  winter  rye  or  spring  rj'-e,  by  gradually  habi- 
tuating it  to  different  times  of  sowing.  Take  winter  rye, 
for  instance,  and  sow  it  later  and  later  each  fall,  and  it  may 
at  length  be  sown  in  the  spring,  and  become  spring  rye. 
On  the  contrary,  sow  spring  rye  very  late  in  the  fall  at  first, 
and  you  may  gradually  sow  it  earlier  each  year,  until  it  may 
be  sown  in  May,  and  used  the  first  season  for  pasture  or 
mowing,  and  then  grown  to  perfection  the  second  year.' 
The  same  opinion  is  likewise  expressed  in  Deane's  New 
England  Farmer. 

Rye  is  capable  of  being  cultivated  on  most  kinds  of  land, 
but  the  light  sandy  soils,  where  wheat  will  not  thrive,  are 
the  sorts  of  soil  on  which  it  will,  generally  speaking,  be 
found  most  profitable  to  raise  this  kind  of  produce.  Sir 
John  Sinclair  observes  that  '  this  species  of  grain  is  not  so 
extensively  cultivated  in  Scotland  as  it  ought  to  be ;  (for 
weighty  crops  of  it  might  be  raised  on  soils  of  the  most  po- 
rous and  arid  nature,  and  upon  almost  pure  sand  along  the 
sea-shore  ;)  and  the  winter  sort,  without  which  the  people 
living  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baitic  could  hardly  be  subsisted, 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  131 

is  almost  unknown.  A  correspordent  informs  me  that  he 
has  had  thirty-five  bushels  of  rye  per  English  acre  on  land 
that  would  not  have  produced  twenty  bushels  of  oats,  in- 
deed, oats,  sown  along  side  of  the  rye,  upon  the  same  field, 
and  on  land  as  nearly  as  could  be  judged  of  the  same  quali- 
ty, were  scarcely  worth  the  expense  of  reaping.  On  moor- 
ish land,  rye  has  been  found  a  more  certain  crop  than  oats. 
Mr.  George  Culley  remarks  that  rye,  like  oats,  will  answer 
in  crude  soils  without  lime,  or  calcareous  manures,  which 
renders  that  crop  peculiarly  calculated  for  waste  lands  when 
first  brought  into  cultivation.' 

Lands  which  will  produce  tolerable  crops  of  wheat  had 
better  be  cultivated  for  the  purpose  of  raising  wheat  than 
rye.  And,  if  we  may  believe  what  English  writers  tell  us 
relative  to  this  subject,  the  use  of  lime  for  manure  will  often 
so  far  change  the  nature  of  a  poor  soil  proper  only  for  rye, 
that  wheat  may  be  made  its  substitute.  Mr.  Marshall,  in 
his  Rural  EcotLomy  of  Yorkshire,  says,  '  Before  the  use  of 
lime  was  prevalent,  much  rye  was  grown  on  the  lighter  lands 
upon  the  margin  of  the  Vale,  and  in  the  Moorlands  scarcely 
any  other  crops  than  rye  and  oats  were  attempted.  No*v, 
rye  is  principally  confined  to  the  Moorland  dales ;  and  even 
there  the  alteration  of  soils  by  lime  has  been  such  that  wheat 
has  become  the  more  prevalent  crop. 

'  Nevertheless  on  light,  sandy  soils,  rye  is  generally  more 
profitable  than  wheat,  and  the  bread  which  is  made  from  a 
mixture  of  the  two  grains  is  here  esteemed  more  wholesome 
to  people  in  general  than  that  which  is  made  from  wheat 
alone.' 

When  rye  is  sown  upon  light  land  it  ripens  much  earlier 
than  on  a  cold  stiff  ground,  and  it  is  said  by  some  writers 
that  by  continuing  to  sow  on  such  a  soil  for  two  or  three 
years,  it  will  be  forwarded  so  much  as  to  ripen  a  month  ear- 
lier than  that  which  has  been  raised  upon  strong  cold  ground. 
For  this  reason,  those  who  sow  their  rye  late  will  do  well  to 
provide  themselves  with  this  early  seed. 

Dr.  Elliot  informs,  that  if  rye  be  sowed  successively  every 
year  upon  the  same  land,  both  the  crop  and  the  land  will  be 
greatly  improved,  insomuch  that  some  grounds,  which  would 
yield  but  five  bushels  to  the  acre  at  first,  have  in  time  pro- 
duced a  crop  of  fifteen  bushels,  without  the  charge  of  ma- 
nure ;  and  Dr.  Deane  observed  that  he  '  had  known  the  same 
spot  produce  twenty  crops  of  this  grain  in  succession,  ex- 
cepting that  it  was  planted  with  Indian  corn  once  or  twice, 


132  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

to  subdu3  the  weeds,  and  that  the  crops  yearly  increased  in- 
stead of  diminishing.'  But  this,  it  is  said,  will  not  be  the 
case,  unless  the  soil  is  naturally  of  a  good  quality,  and  the 
stubble  be  con^.pletely  turned  under  immediately  after  reap- 
ing. If  the  ground  is  suffered  to  remain  after  harvest  with- 
out being  ploughed  till  the  stubble  is  dried  and  shrivelled  so 
that  it  possesses  but  little  substance,  and  the  seeds  of  weeds 
have  had  time  to  ripen,  the  crops  of  grain  in  each  succeeding 
year  will  be  diminished,  and  the  weeds  will  take  an  almost 
exclusive  possession  of  the  soil. 

The  Fanner's  Assistant  is  opposed  to  the  raising  of  suc- 
cessive crops  of  rye,  unless  as  much  as  twenty-five  bushels 
of  this  grain  can  be  yearly  had  from  the  acre ;  as  such  an 
annual  product  would  probably  afford  a  clear  profit  to  the 
acre  of  half  that  number  of  bushels  ;  and  such  a  profit,  he 
observes,  in  some  of  the  lighter  and  in  some  of  the  harder 
kinds  of  soil  is  not  to  be  despised.  The  same  writer  re- 
commends sowing  winter  rye  and  spring  rye  alternately,  in 
order  that  the  ground  might,  every  other  year,  be  enriched 
by  the  application  of  gypsum.  '  The  growing  crop  of  rye,' 
he  says,  '  receives  no  benefit  from  the  application  of  this  ma- 
nure ;  but  it  quickly  covers  the  ground  with  a  fine  sward  of 
white  clover  ;  and  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  thus  swarded,  it 
is  in  good  condition  for  bearing  any  crop.  Let  the  gypsum, 
therefore,  be  sown  in  the  spring,  on  the  growing  crop  of 
winter  rye,  and  by  the  middle  of  October  following  the 
ground  will  be  covered  with  white  clover ;  turn  this  sward 
over  in  the  latter  end  of  the  fall,  and  in  the  spring  sow  a 
crop  of  spring  rye  ;  and,  as  soon  as  this  is  taken  off,  turn 
the  ground  over  again  for  a  crop  of  winter  rye  ;  and  in  the 
spring  repeat  the  process  of  manuring  with  gypsum,  as  be- 
fore, for  a  crop  of  spring  rye ;  and  thus  proceed  with  these 
crops  alternately.' 

Some  sow  their  winter  rye  at  the  last  hoeing  of  Indian 
corn,  and  hoe  it  in  ;  and  this  Dr.  Deane  observed  was  a  good 
practice  when  it  is  sown  on  fiat  land,  or  on  a  rich  or  heavy 
soil,  where  grain  is  apt  to  suffer  by  the  frost  of  winter  ;  for 
the  plants  of  rye  will  be  mostly  on  the  corn  hills,  and  so 
escape  injury  from  frost  ;  at  least  they  will  most  commonly 
escape,  or  so  many  of  them  as  are  necessary  to  give  a  good 
crop.  The  plants  that  are  killed  will  be  those  in  the  low 
spaces  betwixt  the  hills. 

Txye  is  not  only  a  proper  crop  on  land  which  is  too  poor 
to  produce  a  good  crop  of  wheat,  but  it  should  be  sown  on  a 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  133 

soil  which  is  very  rich,  in  preference  to  wheat,  because  it  is 
less  apt  to  grow  so  rank  as  to  lodge  or  blast  than  wheat. 
It  is  a  very  suitable  crop  for  drained  bogs.  In  the  first  vo- 
lume of  Communications  to  the  British  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture, page  341,  in  speaking  of  the  culture  of  rye  in  Kussia, 
it  is  observed  that  the  produce  from  boggy  lands  drained  and 
sowed  with  rye  is  upwards  of  forty  bushels  to  one  sowed ; 
and  they  generally  use  a  much  smaller  quantity  of  seed  in 
sowing  such  lands.  Another  proof  that  rye  will  bear  very 
plentiful  manuring  may  be  adduced  from  a  case  reported  by 
Mr.  L'Hommedieu,  of  New  York,  who  observed,  in  substance, 
that  a  neighbor  of  his  manured  twenty  square  rods  of  poor, 
gravelly,  dry  soil  with  four  thousand  Menhaden  fish,  and 
sowed  it  with  rye,  at  the  rate  of  about  one  bushel  to  the 
acre.  In  the  spring  it  was  twice  successively  eaten  ofl^,  close 
to  the  ground,  by  sheep  breaking  in,  after  it  had  acquired  a 
height  of  nine  inches  the  first  time,  and  six  inches  the  latter. 
Thesj  croppings,  however,  only  served  to  make  it  grow 
thicker  and  stronger  than  before ;  and  when  harvested  it 
produced  sixteen  bushels,  or  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  bushels  to  the  acre;  giving  to  the  owner,  ac- 
cording to  the  calculation  of  Mr.  L'Hommedieu,  at  the  rate 
of  eighty-five  dollars  to  the  acre  of  clear  profit.^ 

In  the  Memoirs  of  the  New  York  Board  of  Agriculture, 
vol.  i,  page  82,  it  is  said,  '  Rye  should  be  sowed  the  last 
week  in  August,  or  the  first  week  in  September,  at  the  rate 
of  about  thirty-six  quarts  per  acre ;  some  say  forty-eight 
quarts.  But  if  it  is  not  sowed  at  that  time,  it  ought  to  be 
delayed  until  late  in  November,  so  that  it  may  not  come  up 
until  spring,  A.  Worthington  had  a  good  crop,  which  he 
sowed  in  a  January  snow  storm.  Rye  raised  on  upland 
makes  much  better  flour  than  that  which  is  raised  on  low  or 
damp  land.' 

Rye  may  be  sown  in  autumn  to  great  advantage  for  green 
fodder  for  cattle  and  sheep,  particularly  the  latter,  in  the 
spring.  Ewes  and  lambs  will  derive  much  benefit  from  it, 
at  a  time  when  little  or  no  other  green  feed  can  be  procured. 
When  it  is  meant  for  this  purpose  it  should  not  only  be  sow- 
ed early  in  autumn,  but  should  be  sowed  thicker  than  when 
it  is  intended  to  stand  for  a  crop  of  seed.      Some  say  that  it 


*  Transactions  of  the  New  York  Agricultural  Society,  part  3,  pp.  35, 
36.     This  account  may  seem  incredible,  but  Mr.  L'Hommedieu  declared 
that  it  was  attested  to  by  many  credible  witnesses. 
12 


134  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

may  well  be  mowed  for  hay  two  or  three  times  in  the  course 
of  the  summer ;  and  this  piece  of  husbandry  is  recommended 
for  farmers  whose  lands  are  mostly  dry  or  unsuitable  for 
grass. 

The  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown  on  an  acre  should  vary 
according  to  the  soil,  the  time  of  sowing,  and  the  purposes 
for  which  it  is  intended.  If  it  be  sowed  in  the  latter  part  of 
August,  or  beginning  of  September,  and  is  intended  to  re- 
main for  a  seed  crop,  the  quantity  should  vary  from  thirty- 
two  to  forty-eight  quarts,  according  to  the  goodness  of  soil. 
Later  sowing  requires  more  seed,  and  in  some  cases  two 
bushels  to  an  acre  will  not  be  too  great  a  quantiiy.  Ban- 
nister's Husbandry  says,  '  When  this  grain  is  sown  for  sheep 
feed,  it  is  proper  to  allow  three  bushels  to  the  acre,  for  where 
the  blade,  haulm,  or  stalks  form  the  primary  object,  a  much 
larger  proportion  of  seed  is  requisite  than  when  the  crop  is 
meant  for  harvesting.' 

Mr,  Adams  Knight,  of  Newbury,  Massachusetts,  received 
a  premium  of  twenty  dollars,  from  the  Massachusetts  Agri- 
cultural societjr,  for  a  crop  of  rye,  obtained  as  follows  : 

'  The  soil  is  a  gravelly  loam,  rather  dry  than  otherwise. 
The  land  was  planted  with  corn  in  the  spring  of  1S31,  and 
manured  in  the  hills  with  about  six  cords  of  manure  to  the 
acre,  of  common  quality.  In  the  month  of  August  follow- 
ing, said  acre  was  sowed  with  three  pecks  of  seed,  and  hoed 
in  the  usual  manner.  In  the  month  of  August  of  the  present 
year  [1832]  the  rye  was  reaped  and  threshed,  and  found  to 
measure  forty-five  bushels  and  five-eighths  of  a  bushel. 
There  is  standing  on  said  acre  of  land  seventy-five  apple- 
trees,  from  two  to  six  inches  through  at  the  root."^ 

The  same  year  Mr.  Gideon  Foster,  of  Charlestown,  Mas- 
sachusetts, obtained  thirty-eight  and  one-sixteenth  bushels 
of  rye  from  one  acre,  as  follows: 

'  The  land  is  bordering  on,  and  near  the  mouth  of  Mystic 
river.  The  soil  is  principally  a  black  loam,  with  clay  bot- 
tom. In  1831  it  was  planted  with  potatoes,  with  a  moderate 
supply  of  manure,  and  yielded  an  ordinary  crop.  The  pota- 
toes were  lemoved  the  last  week  in  September,  the  land  well 
ploughed  and  harrowed  in  the  usual  way,  with  one  and  a 
half  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre.  I  owe  my  success  princi- 
pally to  the  use  of  night  manure,  and  to  that  in  consequence 
of  its  being  well  prepared  by  age,  and  thoroughly  mixed  with 

*  N.  E.  Farmer,  vol.  xi.  p.  238. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOBIIST.  135 

a  large  proportion  of  earth,  and  frequently  removed  by  the 
fork  and  the  shovel ;  so  that  in  this  Avay,  being  ripened  for 
use,  it  went  immediately  (not  to  burn,  as  when  applied  green 
or  new,  but)  to  nourish  and  fertilize  the  soil.  There  was 
early  in  the  spring  of  the  present  year  spread  on  the  field 
about  eight  cords  of  the  above  described  manure.  The  field 
was  harvested  the  latter  part  of  August,  the  grain  threshed 
soon  after,  and  measured  by  the  purchaser,  w^hose  certificate 
follow^ed,  showing  the  product  to  be  sixty-one  and  three- 
fourths  bushels,  or  thirty-eight  bushels  and  two  quarts  to  the 
acre.'^ 

The  following  is  from  the  '  Transactions  of  the  Essex  Agri- 
cultural Society.^ 

To  the  Trustees  of  the  Essex  Agricultural  Society. 

Gentlemen, — Having  for  many  years  past  been  more  than 
commonly  successful  in  raising  large  crops  of  winter  rye  by 
a  process  of  cultivation  w^hich,  I  believe,  is  entirely  new,  I 
have  been  induced,  by  the  suggestion  of  some  gentlemen 
"whose  judgment  I  very  much  respect,  to  submit  for  your 
consideration  a  statement  of  the  mode  of  culture,  with  the 
produce.  And,  that  the  success  of  the  experiment  this  sea- 
roii  may  not  appear  to  be  altogether  accidental,  it  will,  per- 
haps, be  as  well  to  communicate  the  result  of  the  process  for 
the  three  or  four  previous  years. 

The  land  on  which  the  experiment  has  been  conducted  is 
situated  on  the  Merrimack,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  east  of 
Haverhill  bridge ;  and  came  into  possession  of  my  father  in 
1827.  The  soil  is  a  sand,  approaching  to  loam  as  it  recedes 
from  the  river.  Perhaps  the  term  plain  land  (by  which  it 
usually  passes)  will  better  convey  an  idea  of  the  quality  of 
the  soil.  It  is  altogether  too  light  for  grass.  The  crops  we 
find  most  profitable  to  cultivate  on  it  are  winter  rye,  Indian 
corn,  potatoes,  and  to  some  extent  turnips.  Oats  might 
probably  be  raised  to  advantage,  were  it  not  that  the  land  is 
completely  filled  with  the  weed  commonly  called  charlick, 
which  renders  it  entirely  unfit  for  any  spring  crop,  excepting 
such  as  can  be  hoed.  The  crops  of  rye  on  the  neighboring 
soil  of  the  same  nature  vary,  1  believe,  from  seven  or  eiffht 
to  twelve  or  thirteen  bushels  per  acre,  according  to  the  culti- 
vation, and  their  approximation  to  the  river.  We  usually 
raise  on  this  land  from  thirteen  to  thirty  bushels   of  Indian 

*  N.  E.  Farmer,  vol.  xi.  p.  243. 


136  THE    COMPLETE    FAEMER 

corn  per  acre.  Potatoes  are  very  good  in  quality,  but  the 
quantity  is  quite  small ;  not  sufficient  to  be  profitable,  were 
it  not  that  the  land  is  very  easily  cultivated. 

In  the  sumnner  of  1827,  we  sowed  three  bushels  of  winter 
rye  near  the  river,  on  about  two  acres  of  land,  which  pro- 
duced twenty-eight  bushels. 

In  1828,  we  sowed  four  bushels  on  four  acres  of  land  run- 
ning the  whole  extent  of  the  plain  from  the  river.  This 
piece  was  sowed  in  the  spring  with  oats  ;  but  they  were  com- 
pletely smothered  with  charlick,  and  about  the  middle  of 
June,  the  w^hole  crop  was  mowed  to  prevent  the  charlick 
seeding.  By  about  the  middle  of  August,  a  second  crop  of 
charlick  having  covered  the  land,  it  was  ploughed  very  care- 
fully, in  order  completely  to  bury  the  charlick ;  and  then 
suflered  to  remain  until  the  l'5th  of  September,  when  we  be- 
gan sowing  the  rye  in  the  following  manner.  A  strip  of 
land  about  twelve  yards  wade  was  ploughed  very  evenly,  to 
prevent  deep  gutters  between  the  furrows,  and  the  seed  im- 
mediately sown  upon  the  furrow  and  harrowed  in ;  then 
another  strip  of  the  same  wddth,  and  so  on,  until  the  whole 
was  finished.  We  found  the  oat  stubble  and  charlick  en~ 
tirely  rotted,  and  the  land  appeared  as  if  it  had  been  well 
manured,  though  none  had  been  applied  to  this  part  since  it 
had  been  in  our  possession.  The  rye  sprung  very  quick  and 
vigorously,  having  evidently  derived  great  benefit  from  being 
sown  and  sprouted  before  the  moisture  supplied  by  the  de- 
caying vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  had  evaporated  to  any 
considerable  extent.  This  crop  produced  one  hundred  and 
thirty-three  bushels. 

In  1829,  the  charlick  was  suffered  to  grow  on  the  land 
appropriated  to  rye,  until  it  had  attained  its  growth  and  was 
in  full  blossom.  The  land  was  then  ploughed  very  carefully, 
and  the  charlick  completely  covered  in.  In  a  short  time  a 
second  crop  appeared,  more  vigorous  than  the  first.  This 
also  was  allowed  to  attain  its  growth,  and  then  ploughed  in 
as  before.  A  third  crop  soon  appeared,  which  of  course  was 
destroyed,  Avhen  the  land  was  again  ploughed  for  sowing 
about  the  middle  of  September.  This  piece  of  land  was  a 
parallel  strip  running  from  the  river,  and  containing  two 
acres.  Two  bushels  of  rye  were  sowed.  The  crop  present- 
ed a  remarkably  promising  appearance,  and  yielded  seventy- 
four  and  a  half  bushels. 

In  1830,  the  land  appropriated  to  rye  included  nearly  all 
the  lighter  part  of  the  soil,  and  owing  to  a  pressure  of  busi- 


AND    RURAL   ECONOMIST.  137 

ness  was  not  attended  to  as  we  could  have  wished.  It  was 
ploughed  in  the  early  part  of  the  summer ;  but  harrowing 
to  destroy  the  weeds  was  substituted  for  the  second  plough- 
ing. This,  and  the  unusual  blight  which  affected  all  the 
grain  in  this  part  of  the  country,  led  us  to  anticipate  a  small 
crop.     It  yielded,  however,  fifteen  bushels  to  the  acre. 

The  land  on  which  the  crop  of  rye  was  raised  the  present 
season  had  for  three  or  four  previous  years  been  planted  with 
Indian  corn ;  and  owing  to  the  extent  of  our  tillage  land,  we 
have  not  been  able  to  apply  more  than  four  or  five  loads  of 
manure  to  the  acre  this  season.  The  charlick  was  suffered 
to  attain  its  growth  as  usual ;  and  on  the  18th  and  19th  of 
June  it  was  carefully  ploughed  in.  The  second  crop  was 
ploughed  in  on  the  6th  and  7th  of  August.  On  the  14th  and 
15th  of  September  it  was  sowed  in  the  usual  manner,  name- 
ly, a  small  strip  of  land  was  ploughed,  and  the  seed  sown 
immediately  upon  the  furrow,  and  then  harrowed  in  ;  then 
another  strip  of  land  was  ploughed,  and  so  on,  until  the  whole 
was  completed.  One  bushel  per  acre  was  sowed,  as  usual. 
The, seed  was  originally  obtained  from  a  farmer  in  this  vici- 
nity, and  I  suppose  is  similar  to  that  which  is  generally 
used.  We  have  never  prepared  our  seed  in  any  manner,  but 
have  directed  our  attention  solely  to  the  preparation  of  the 
land;  and  to  this  we  attribute  our  success.  Owing  to  the 
unusual  severity  of  the  winter,  the  crop  was  considerably 
winter-killed,  but  recovered  very  soon  in  the  spring,  except- 
ing in  the  midfurrows.  There,  as  the  land  lies  very  level,  the 
water  settled,  and  so  completely  destroyed  the  rye  that  they 
continued  bare  the  whole  season.  This  would  of  course 
cause  some  diminution  in  the  crop  ;  perhaps  a  bushel  or  two. 
The  rye  was  reaped  at  the  usual  season,  and,  as  the  weather 
was  favorable,  immediately  put  into  the  barn.  The  land 
contained  one  acre  and  thirteen  rods,  and  yielded  forty-six 
bushels  and  three  pecks  :  a  remarkably  fine  sample. 

In  entering  a  claim  for  your  premium,  I  would  ask  your 
attention  particularly  to  the  process  of  cultivation.  It  is  I 
believe  entirely  new,  and  capable  of  general  application. 

Sowing  the  seed  immediately  after  the  plough  we  con- 
sider very  advantageous  to  the  crop.  The  soil  being  then 
moist,  causes  the  seed  to  spring  immediately,  and  gives  a 
forwardness  and  vigor  to  the  plants,  which  they  ever  after 
retain. 

The  process  of  ploughing  in  three  crops  of  weeds  before 
the  seed  is  sown  very  much  enriches  the  soil.     It  would  be 
12=^ 


138  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

altogether  unnecessary  to  attempt  to  refute  the  notion,  that 
by  such  a  process  nothing  more  is  applied  to  the  soil  than 
was  before  derived  from  it.  If  one  could  not  discover  by  the 
light  which  chemistry  has  shed  upon  the  suLject  of  agricul- 
ture sufficient  reasons  for  the  contrary  conclusion,  observation, 
one  would  think,  would  be  sufficient  to  convince  any  intelli- 
gent man  of  the  fact. 

And  here  I  would  suggest,  that  I  do  not  consider  the  ex- 
periment, as  we  have  conducted  it,  quite  complete.  To 
render  it  more  so,  in  the  first  place,  in  ploughing  in  the 
weeds,  I  would  not  turn  a  furrow  after  the  dew  had  evapo- 
rated. I  have  no  doubt  but  that  a  large  portion  of  that  fer- 
tilizing quality  in  the  soil,  which  (during  the  summer  months) 
is  continually  exhaled  from  the  earth,  is  by  the  dew  brought 
again  within  our  reach,  and  it  would  be  wise  to  avail  our- 
selves of  the  opportunity  of  again  burying  it  in  the  soil. 
And  in  the  second  place,  I  would  by  all  means  use  a  heavy 
roller  after  each  ploughing.  It  would  fill  all  the  cavities  left 
by  the  plough,  and  by  pressing  the  soil  more  closely  to  the 
weeds,  at  once  hasten  their  decomposition  and  very  much 
retard  the  evaporation  from  the  soil. 

But  the  land  is  not  only  Aery  much  enriched  by  this  pro- 
cess. There  is,  I  conceive,  no  method  by  which  it  can  be  so 
effectually  cleaned.  Three  times  during  the  season  a  fresh 
surface  is  presented  to  the  atmosphere ;  and  each  time,  as 
the  decaying  vegetable  matter  increases  in  the  soil,  so  is  the 
exciting  cause  augmented  to  make  a  more  vigorous  effort. 
"We  have  in  this  manner  gone  over  nearly  all  our  land  which 
is  invested  with  charlick,  and  the  diminution  of  the  weeds  is 
quite  sufficient  to  warrant  the  expectation,  that  in  a  few 
years  it  may  be  comparatively  eradicated. 

Very  respectfully,  John  Keely. 

Haverhill,  Sept.  22,  1832. 


OATS.  The  following  remarks  are  extracted  from  a  com- 
munication for  the  New  England  Farmer,  written  by  Henry 
Stevens,  of  Barnet,  Vermont. 

'  The  subject  which  I  propose  is  that  of  the  more  exten- 
sive cultivation  of  oats.  Various  are  the  kinds  of  oats.  The 
barley  or  Scotch  oats,  so  called,  I  have  cultivated,  but  not 
with  very  great  success  ;  their  weight  is  generally  about 
forty-two  pounds  per  bushel.     I  have  seldom  been  able  to 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  139 

raise  more  than  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre. 
The  black  oats  I  have  cultivated ;  their  weight  is  about  thir- 
ty-six pounds  per  bushel,  and  produce  about  as  many  bush- 
els per  acre  as  the  barley  or  Scotch  oats.  The  greatest  ob- 
jection I  have  to  the  barley  or  Scotch  oats  is,  that  they 
must  be  harvested  suddenly  after  they  are  fit,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent waste.  The  common  oats  which  are  raised  I  consider 
preferable.  My  average  crop  of  late  years  has  been  from 
forty  to  fifty  bushels  per  acre,  and  in  one  instance  sixty-five 
bushels  per  acre. 

'I  make  oats  principally,  and  generally  speaking,  my  first 
crop  in  the  line  of  a  rotation  of  crops.  1  break  up  the  piece 
intended  for  this  crop  in  the  fall,  if  possible,  and  in  the  spring 
cross  plough  and  harrow  thoroughly  before  I  sow  my  grain; 
then  harrow  again  until  the  turf  is  well  pulverized;  then 
sow  ten  bushels  of  clover  seed  chafT  per  acre,  and  roll  it  in. 
As  soon  as  the  grain  is  harvested,  and  the  young  clover  has 
received  its  growth,  I  plough  it  in.  This  clover  with  the 
stubble  is  about  equal  to  a  common  dressing  of  compost  ma- 
nure. In  the  fall  plough,  in  the  spring  I  cross  plough,  after 
taking  from  my  compost  heap  thirtj'^  loads  per  acre,  which 
are  carefully  spread.  The  lot  then  being  well  harrowed  and 
furrowed,  is  ready  for  planting,  either  with  corn,  potatoes,  or 
turnips.  This  is  my  second  crop.  For  my  third  crop  I 
again  sow  wheat,  peas,  fiax,  oats,  &c.,  and  stock  the  lot  down 
with  herd's  grass  and  red  top,  which  I  believe  make  the  best 
of  hay.  I  let  the  lot  remain  in  grass  three  years.  Thus 
you  will  observe  I  till  three  years,  or  mow  or  pasture  three 
years.     My  first  and  third  crop  is  principally  oats. 

'  I  have  frequently  been  told  that  oats  and  corn  were  very 
impoverishing  crops  ;  but  1  find  no  difficulty  in  enriching  my 
land  as  above  stated.  Ten  years  ago  my  average  crop  of 
corn  was  from  thirty  to  forty  bushels  per  acre ;  but  in  pass- 
ing over  a  lot  the  second  time,  which  was  managed  as  above, 
in  the  summer  of  1821,  I  had  the  satisfaction  of  harvesting 
ninety-six  bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  and  received  the  society's 
premium.  My  other  crops  have  advanced  in  about  the  same 
proportion. 

'  The  inquiry  will  naturally  be  made,  what  I  do  with  my 
oats  ?  Well,  sir,  after  I  have  reserved  for  my  stock  and  for 
seed,  I  take  the  remainder  tu  my  mill  and  manufacture  them 
into  flour  and  meal.  It  will  be  understood  that  the  oats  are 
kiln  dried,  then  hulled  about  as  clean  as  rice,  then  ground, 
and  bolted  or  sifted,  as  the  case  may  be.     That  which  I  bolt 


140  THE    COMPLETE  FARMER 

is  calculated  to  be  mixed  with  wheat  flour  for  bread  ;  in 
which  case  the  oat  flour,  being  kiln  dried,  must  be  scalded 
before  it  is  mixed  with  the  wheat  flour,  otherwise  the  bread 
will  be  too  dry.  Good  oat  flour,  prepared  as  above,  mixed 
with  wheat  flour,  half  and  half,  will  make  as  light  and  plea- 
sant bread  as  common  country  wheat  flour,  and  it  will 
trouble  good  judges  of  bread  to  tell  it  from  clear  flour  bread. 
Again,  it  is  excellent  to  make  butter  cake,  by  the  Yankees 
called  slapjacks.  The  oat-meal  is  calculated  for  puddings, 
and  is  a  substitute  for  rye  meal  to  mix  with  corn  meal  or  rye 
meal  for  bread.  In  either  case  the  oat-meal  must  be  scalded 
before  it  is  mixed. 

'  Thus  after  supplying  my  family,  the  remainder  is  for  mar- 
ket. The  oat  flour  I  have  generally  sold  in  Boston  and  New 
York  to  the  druggists.  The  meal  is  also  purchased  by  the 
druggists.  I  have  generally  sold  them  oat  flour  for  from  four 
to  five  dollars  per  hundred,  and  the  meal  from  three  fifty  to 
four  fifty,  which  is  by  them  retailed  as  medicine,  from  twelve 
to  twenty  cents  per  pound. 

'  The  meal  is  frequently  h  ought  by  foreigners,  by  the  bar- 
rel or  hundred,  for  family  use.  The  sale  of  oat-meal  is  at 
present  rather  limited ;  the  reason  is  that  but  very  few  peo- 
ple in  this  country,  save  foreigners,  are  acquainted  with  the 
use  of  it,  except  for  medicine.  Foreigners  generally  prefer 
oat-meal  to  flour.  I  really  hope,  both  for  our  health  and  the 
interest  of  agriculture,  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant,  when 
oat  flour  and  meal  will  be  used  in  every  family  for  food. 

'  Much  may  be  said  as  to  the  value  of  this  article  as  medi- 
cine, as  well  as  for  food.  It  has  been  a  common  article  for 
food  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  for  many  years.  Seldom,  if 
ever,  an  English,  Scotch,  or  Irish  vessel  sailed  without  a 
supply  of  oat-meal ;  and  I  may  say  it  would  be  well  for  eve- 
ry commander  of  an  American  vessel,  in  making  up  his  or- 
der for  ship  stores,  to  include  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oat- 
meal or  flour  for  his  voyage.' 

A  writer  in  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository, 
vol.  V.  pp.  331-2,  says,  '  It  appears  to  us  best,  all  things  con- 
sidered, that  the  first  crop,  after  turning  over  sward,  should 
be  oats.  The  reason  why  an  oat  crop  should  precede  a  po- 
tato crop  is,  that  it  not  only  pays  well  by  its  product  for 
the  year's  labor,  but  enables  the  husbandman  to  deepen  his 
ploughing,  preparatory  to  the  second  year's  series  in  the  ro- 
tation.' 

We  believe  that  oat-meal  is  of  more  value  as  an  article  of 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  141 

diet  than  is  generally  supposed  in  this  country.  Loudon,  in 
his  Encyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  in  giving  some  notices  of 
the  agriculture  of  Angus,  in  Scotland,  observes,  that 

'  Oat-meal,  when  it  is  sufficiently  diluted  with  any  sort  of 
liquid,  is  known  to  be  laxative,  aperient,  wholesome,  and  at 
the  same  time  a  strengthening  food  for  those  engaged  in 
hard  labor.  Engineers  who  superintend  the  excavation  of 
canals  have  assured  the  reporter  that  those  laborers  who 
lived  entirely  on  oat-rneal  and  milk  did  a  third  more  work 
than  those  who  used  butcher's  meat  and  ardent  spirits.  All 
of  the  former  saved  money,  while  many  of  the  latter  involved 
themselves  in  debt.  As  this  sort  of  work  is  done  by  the 
piece,  it  affords  a  fair  comparison  not  only  of  the  wholesome- 
ness  of  oat-meal  in  promoting  health,  but  its  power  in  sup- 
plying labor.' 

In  harvesting  oats,  it  is  recommended  to  mow,  instead  of 
reaping  them,  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  turn  yellow.  If  they 
are  then  well  dried,  the  straw  v\ill  make  food  for  cattle,  after 
being  threshed,  which  will  be  eaten  by  the  animals  in  pre- 
ference to  the  best  meadow  hay. 

Mr.  Jacob  Smith,  of  Duxbury,  Massachusetts,  is  said  to 
have  raised,  in  1833,  the  prodigious  crop  of  seventy-four  bush- 
els and  three  pedes  of  oats  on  four-fifths  of  an  o.cre.  The 
average  height  of  the  plants  at  the  time  of  harvest  was  esti- 
mated at  five  feet  four  inches. 


BARLEY.  The  follow  ing  is  from  the  pen  of  judge  Buel, 
of  Albany. 

'  The  soil  for  barley  should  be  such  as  will  grow  good 
turnips,  or  other  green  crops,  including  clovers,  and  which 
embrace  the  varieties  of  loams  and  sands  that  are  not  wet, 
or  very  dry  and  poor.  Indeed,  I  have  taken  my  crops,  and 
they  have  been  pretty  good,  from  my  lightest  turnip  soils. 
Barley  cannot  be  cultivated  to  advantage  upon  stiff,  heavy, 
and  wet  grounds,  or  on  such  as  are  of  a  cold  and  tenacious 
quality.  This  crop  occupies  the  ground  but  about  three 
months  ;  and  it  is  only  in  a  dry,  light,  mellow  soil  that  its 
roots  can  extend  with  sufficient  facility,  and  supply  the  food 
necessary  to  bring  the  grain  to  rapid  and  perfect  maturity. 

'  Previous  Crop.  Crops  that  precede  this  grain  should  be 
such  as  leave  the  ground  mellow  and  free  from  weeds  ; 
and  for  ihis  reason  hoed  crops  are  to  be  preferred,  such  as 


142  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

turnips,  potatoes,  peas,  beans,  &c.  Small  grains  should  not 
precede  it ;  they  impoverish  the  soil,  leave  it  foul,  and,  be- 
sides, it  is  contravening  one  of  the  most  salutary  maxims  of 
husbandry  to  grow  two  dry  crops  in  succession.  It  may 
follow  clover ;  but  if  the  soil  is  heavy,  the  ley  should  be 
ploughed  in  autumn.  Barley  is  successfully  sown  upon 
the  falbws  in  England,  (not  summer,  but  autumn  fallows,) 
and  is  sown  sometimes  after  wheat ;  but  in  the  latter  case 
the  turnips  are  pulled,  and  previously  fed  upon  the  stubble  ;  a 
practice  which  I  think  is  not  likely  to  obtain  here.  I  have 
generally  sown  barley  after  ruta  baga  or  potatoes,  these 
crops  having  received  a  good  dressing  of  long  yard  or  stable 
manure. 

'  Mamire  should  not  be  applied  to  the  barley,  but  to  the 
preceding  crop.  The  short  period  that  this  grain  occupies 
the  ground  does  not  afford  time  for  the  manure  to  decom- 
pose and  yield  its  food  to  the  plants ;  and,  if  applied  in  ex- 
cess, it  causes  a  too  rank  vegetation,  and  the  straw  lodges 
before  the  grain  is  matured.  When  a  fallow  or  clover  ley 
is  employed  and  ploughed  in  autumn,  dung  may  be  previous- 
ly employed  and  ploughed  under. 

'  Preparation  of  the  Ground.  Where  barley  follows  a 
root  or  hoed  crop,  one  ploughing  will  generally  suffice  ;  but 
in  all  cases  a  complete  pulverization  of  the  soil  is  necessary; 
and  to  effect  this  a  roller  is  often  of  material  benefit.  If 
sown  upon  grass  leys,  ploughed  in  autumn,  the  spring 
ploughing  should  be  shallow,  so  as  to  leave  the  sod  reversed. 
But  the  preferable  way  may  be  to  harrow  the  fallow,  plough 
in  the  seed  with  a  light  furrow,  and  smooth  off  with  the  har- 
row. 

*  The  Seed  and  Smoing.  Loudon  enumerates  six  species 
and  sub-species  of  the  barley.  The  kinds  uniformly  culti- 
vated here  are  the  two,  four,  and  six  rowed  spring,  {hordeum 
vulgare  and  hordeum  distichon.)  Thin-skinned,  pale,  plump 
seed  should  be  selected.  I  sow  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  suffi- 
ciently dry  in  spring.  The  young  grain  is  not  hurt  by  the 
ordinary  frosts  of  the  latter  part  of  April  and  May.  I  sow 
from  six  to  eight  pecks  per  acre,  according  to  the  richness 
of  the  soil  and  the  forwardness  of  the  season  ;  the  poorest 
ground  and  the  latest  sowing  requiring  the  most  seed.  In 
England,  the  common  quantity  of  seed  is  from  eight  to  six- 
teen pecks.  Our  climate  being  much  warmer  than  that  of 
Great  Britain,  barley  and  other  grains  till  better  with  us, 
and  consequently  we  require  less  seed.     We  uniformly  sow 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  143 

broad-cast,  generally  on  the  fresh  furrow,  and  harrow  in 
both  ways ;  and  those  who  have  a  roller  use  it  in  the  finish- 
ing operation.  It  gives  a  smooth  surface,  breaks  down  the 
lumps,  brings  the  earth  in  contact  with  the  seed,  and  if  grass 
seeds  have  been  sown,  its  use  is  doubly  beneficial.  I  steep 
my  seeds  twenty-four  hours  in  a  weak  solution  of  nitre,  the 
crude  kind  of  which  costs  me  only  eight  cents  per  pound 
by  the  quantity.  From  the  analysis  and  observations  of 
Grisenthwaite,  there  is  reason  tj  believe  that  this  salt  is 
peculiarly  beneficial  to  the  barley  crop,  the  grain  yielding  it 
on  analysis.  I  have  made  no  comparative  experiments,  but 
I  think  this  step  serviceable.  I  have  applied  to  this  grain, 
as  a  top-dressing,  with  singular  success,  the  powdered  dung 
of  pigeons  and  dunghill  fowls,  at  the  rate  of  twenty  to  thirty 
bup'hels  the  acre. 

'  The  crop  admits  of  no  after-culture  when  sown  broad- 
cast. Yet  the  application  of  the  roller,  when  the  plants  are 
two  or  three  inches  high,  is  no  doubt  salutary,  especially  if 
there  have  been  no  considerable  rains.  Rolling  gives  a  salu- 
tary compression  to  the  soil,  which  in  the  spring  is  apt  to 
be  loose  and  porous,  and  full  of  cracks,  by  the  alternation 
of  freezing  and  thawing,  or  of  wet  and  dry  weather ;  it  de- 
stroys many  insects ;  and,  above  all,  it  partially  buries  the 
crowns  o:  the  plants,  and  introduces  a  multiplication  of  seed 
stalks,  i  can  recommend  the  practice  from  experience. 
When  grass  seeds  are  sown  with  barley,  the  luxuriance  of 
the  young  grass  sometimes  chokes  the  grain,  robs  it  of 
nutriment,  and  sensibly  diminishes  the  product.  To  obviate 
this  evil  it  iias  been  recommended  to  sow  the  grass  seeds 
after  the  barley  has  come  up,  and  to  cover  them  with  a  light 
harrow  and  a  roller ;  and  it  is  said,  and  I  think  with  truth, 
that  this  operation  will  not  materially  injure  the  grain.  In 
dry  seasons,  the  crop  is  sometimes  attacked  by  worms, 
while  young.  In  this  case  the  roller  should  be  applied  and 
sufficient  weight  added  to  require  the  draught  of  two  or 
three  cattla. 

'  Time  and  Method  of  Harvesting.  When  the  soil  is  rich 
and  the  season  propitious,  this  grain  is  very  liable  to  lodge. 
If  this  happens  after  it  has  blossomed,  no  material  injury  is 
sustained  in  the  product ;  if  before,  the  crop  is  greatly  di- 
minished. This  shows  the  danger  to  be  apprehended  from 
making  the  soil  too  rich,  and  of  applying  fresh  manure. 
Barley  is  known  to  be  ripe  by  the  disappearance  of  the  red- 
dish cast  on  the  ear,  or  what  the  English  farmers  term  red 


144  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

roan  ;  ty  the  ears  beginning  to  droop,  and  bend  themselves 
round  against  the  stems  ;  and  by  the  stalks  becoming  brittle, 
and  of  a  yellowish  color.  This  is  the  particular  period  for 
cutting,  as,  if  suffered  to  stand  longer,  the  heads  break  off, 
and  the  grain  wastes  with  the  slightest  touch.  And  it  may 
be  cut  with  the  cradle,  sickle,  or  scythe,  according  to  cir- 
cums^^ances.  If  it  stands  straight,  and  is  not  too  heavy,  the 
cradle  is  to  be  preferred  ;  if  heavy,  or  lodged,  the  sickle  or 
scythe.  But  as  the  grain  's  yet  soft,  and  the  straw  contains 
much  moisture  when  it  ought  to  be  cut,  it  should  be  suffer- 
ed to  become  well  dried  in  the  swath  before  it  is  bound  in 
sheaves,  or  carried  to  the  barn  or  stack.  If  cut  with  the 
cradle  or  sickle,  it  is  bound  in  sheaves  ;  but  the  more  com- 
mon practice  is  to  cut  the  crop  with  the  scythe,  rake  the 
ground,  and  load  it  with  the  barley  fork. 

'  Barley  improves  for  malting  by  lying  till  October  before 
it  is  threshed  ;  though  it  is  often  threshed  immediately  from 
the  field.  The  great  difficulty  in  preparing  it  for  market  is 
to  rid  it  of  the  awns.  This  may  be  done  with  flails,  after  it 
has  passed  once  throuorh  the  fanning  mill ;  and,  where  it  is 
in  great  quantities,  it  may  be  spread  from  four  to  six  inches 
upon  the  barn  floor,  and  trodden  with  horses. 

'  Produce  and  Profits.  The  average  product  in  England 
is  stated  by  Donaldson  at  thiriy-two  bushels  per  acre.  The 
product  in  New  York  varies  from  fifteen  to  seventy  bushels, 
according  to  season  and  soil ;  ard  I  think  the  average  is 
somewhat  short  of  that  of  Great  Britain.  Compared  with 
wheat,  its  product  is  as  two  or  two  and  a  half  to  one ;  com- 
pared with  oats,  about  equal,  provided  the  soil  is  adapted  to 
this  grain.  It  is,  however,  to  be  remembered,  that  neither 
wheat  nor  oats  are  adapted  to  a  barley  soil ;  the  first  re- 
quiring a  more  stiff  and  tenacious  and  the  latter  a  more  cold 
and  moist  location.  The  average  price  of  barley  is  at  least 
two-thiras  that  of  wheat.  Supposing  wheat,  then,  to  be  one 
dollar  and  twelve  cents  the  bushel,  and  the  product  fifteen 
bushels  per  acre,  and  barley  to  be  seventy-five  cents,  and 
the  product  of  an  acre  thirty  bushels,  and  the  expense  of  cul- 
tivation equal,  the  profits  of  the  barley  will  be  nearly  as  three 
to  two  compared  to  wheat.  Barley,  besides,  is  a  less  preca- 
rious crop,  is  subject  to  fewer  diseases,  and  has  fewer  insect 
enemies  to  encounter  than  wheat.' 

A  correspondent  of  the  Bath  Agricultural  society  writes, 
'  The  last  spring  being  remarkably  dry,  I  soaked  my  seed 
barley  in  the  black   water  taken  from  a  reservoir,  which 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  145 

constantly  receives  the  draining  of  my  dung  heap  and  stables. 
As  the  light  grains  floated  on  the  top,  I  skimmed  them  off, 
and  let  the  rest  stand  twenty-four  hours.  On  taking  it  from 
the  water,  I  mixed  the  grain  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
sifted  wood  ashes,  to  make  it  spread  regularly,  and  sowed 
three  fields  with  it.  The  produce  was  sixty  bushels  per 
acre.  I  sowed  some  other  fields  with  the  same  seed  dry, 
but  the  crop,  like  those  of  my  neighbors,  was  very  poor,  not 
more  than  twenty  bushels  per  acre,  and  mixed  with  green 
corn  and  weeds  when  harvested.  I  also  sowed  some  of  my 
seed  dry  on  one  ridge  in  each  of  my  fields,  but  the  produce 
was  very  poor,  in  comparison  of  the  other  parts  of  the  field.' 


MILLET.  {Panicum  miliaceurn.)  The  stalks  and  leaves 
of  this  plant  resemble  those  of  Indian  corn,  though  much 
smal'jr.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet.  A. 
sandy  soil  suits  it  best.  It  bears  drought  admirably  well. 
It  is  said  to  produce  as  large  a  quantity  of  grain  as  Indian 
corn,  when  cultivated  in  drills  three  feet  apart  and  six  inches 
in  the  rows ;  but  owing  to  the  difficulty  in  saving  the  crop 
on  account  of  birds,  of  its  ripening  unequally,  and  its  shelling 
out,  it  is  generally  thought  best  to  sow  it  broad-cast,  and 
cut  it  when  in  milk  for  fodder. 

Mr.  Reeder,  of  Pennsylvania,  sowed  one  peck  to  the  acre 
in  May,  and  put  in  four  acres  ;  cut  it  the  middle  of  August, 
and  dried  it  in  the  sun  two  or  three  days.  He  had  seventy- 
five  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre,  and  six  tons  of  fodfler  on  four 
acres.     His  cattle  relished  it  very  well. 

It  is  stated  in  the  Plough  Boy,  that  millet  sowed  in  June 
on  good  ground  will  give  from  two  to  four  tons  of  fodder,  and 
from  twenty  to  thirty  bushels  of  seed,  equal  to  corn  for  fat- 
tening hogs.  It  is  cultivated  in  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland 
as  a  fodder  crop,  and  cut  in  the  milk.  It  is  preferred  in  win- 
ter by  neat  cattle  to  clover. 

The  American  Farmer  gives  the  following  very  flattering 
account  of  this  grain.  Millet  sown  from  the  first  of  May  to 
the  20th  of  June  has  invariably  furnished  more  fodder  than 
could  have  been  obtained  from  grass  under  similar  circum- 
stances. On  the  5th  of  May,  five  bushels  were  sown  on  four 
acres  ;  on  the  5th  of  July  it  was  harvested,  and  estimated  at 
four  tons  per  acre.  It  requires  in  all  cases  fine  tilth,  and 
as  much  strength  of  soil  as  is  necessary  to  produce  heavy  oats. 
13 


146  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

A  crop  of  fodder  can  be  produced  if  sowed  as  late  as  the 
last  of  July. 

Mr.  N.  Davenport,  of  Milton,  Massachusetts,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing account  of  growing  a  crop  of  millet : 

'  From  the  10th  to  the  23d  of  June,  I  sowed  about  twelve 
acres  of  millet,  at  about  sixteen  quarts  per  acre.  About  one- 
third  Avas  on  land  planted  the  year  before,  and  I  think  pro- 
duced nearly  three  tons  per  acre ;  the  other  two-thirds  was 
on  green  sward,  ploughed  and  harrowed  but  a  few  days  be- 
fore being  sown ;  and  on  very  light  land,  without  any  ma- 
nure on  either.  I  had  not  much  over  one  ton  per  acre  on 
the  green  sward,  the  land  being  so  light  that  it  did  not  bear 
more  than  two  or  three  hundred  of  hay  per  acre.  I  mowed 
my  millet  from  the  1st  to  the  12th  of  September ;  and  I 
found  the  tops  of  heads  perfectly  ripe  and  fit  for  seed. 

'  I  think  millet  well  worth  the  attention  of  farmers  in 
general  for  horned  cattle.  I  believe  all  horned  cattle  prefer 
it  to  any  other  fodder.  But  I  think  hay  for  horses  is  better 
than  millet.' 

John  Hare  Powel,  Esq.,  of  Pennsylvania,  has  given  us  the 
following  observations  on  the  culture  of  this  crop. 

I  have  made  many  experiments  on  various  soils,  and  at 
different  seasons,  to  ascertain  the  product  as  well  as  the  pro- 
perties of  millet.  Upon  light  land,  in  good  condition,  it  suc- 
ceeds best.  It  requires  in  all  cases  fine  tilth,  and  as  much 
strength  of  soil  as  is  necessary  to  produce  heavy  oats.  I 
have  not  seen,  either  in  Europe  or  America,  any  green  crop 
which  so  largely  rewards  accurate  tillage  and  plentiful  sup- 
plies of  manure,  as  the  species  of  millet  usually  grown  in  this 
and  the  adjacent  counties.  I  have  sown  it  from  the  first  of 
May  to  the  20th  of  June,  and  have  invariably  obtained 
more  fodder  than  could  have  been  had  from  any  grass  under 
similar  circumstances.  In  the  autumn,  eighty  bushels  of 
caustic  lime  per  acre  were  strewed  upon  an  old  sward,  which 
was  immediately  ploughed,  closely  harrowed,  sown  with  rye, 
and  rolled.  The  rye  was  depastured  in  the  winter  and  suc- 
ceeding spring.  Early  in  April  the  land  was  ploughed  again  ; 
the  lime  and  decomposed  vegetable  matter  was  thus  returned 
to  the  surface.  About  three  weeks  after,  it  was  harrowed,  to 
destroy  weeds ;  early  in  May  it  was  again  harrowed  for  the 
same  purpose ;  within  a  fortnight  it  was  stirred  with  Beat- 
son's  scarifier  to  the  depth  of  nine  inches,  harrowed,  sown 
with  millet,  and  rolled.     The  crop  was  fairly  estimated  at 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


147 


three  tons  per  acre.  After  the  millet  was  cut,  the  field  was 
stirred,  and  repeatedly  harrowed,  to  destroy  the  after  grovvth 
of  noxious  plants.  I  intend  to  again  sow  rye,  not  only  to 
obtain  pasturage,  but  to  protect  the  soil  from  the  exhalations 
of  the  sun.  In  the  succeeding  spring,  a  slight  dressing  of 
fresh  manure  was  ploughed  under  ;  the  scarifier,  roller,  and 
harrow  were  used  at  intervals  as  before.  On  the  5th  of  May, 
five  bushels  of  millet  seeds  were  sown  on  four  acres ;  on  the 
5th  of  July  the  crop  was  hauled,  and  estimated  at  four  tons 
per  acre.  I  have  obtained  this  season  forty  tons  from  six- 
teen acres,  of  which  four  only  had  been  manured  ;  the  re- 
mainder could  not  have  borne  a  good  wheat  crop.  One  of 
the  loads  v/as  weighed ;  an  account  of  them  was  regularly 
kept ;  their  size  was  made  as  nearly  equal  as  possible.  I 
have  generally  used  a  large  quantity  of  seed,  as  not  more 
than  two-thirds  of  that  which  is  usually  sown  will  vegetate. 
Whilst  my  oxen  consumed  millet  in  its  green  state,  they 
performed  their  work  with  more  spirit  and  vigor  than  they 
had  done  before,  or  hav^e  shown  since,  except  when  fed  with 
grain.  My  cattle,  of  all  ages,  prefer  it  to  both  red  and  the 
best  white  clover,  meadow,  or  timothy  hay. 

I  am  not  disposed  to  cultivate  it  as  a  farinaceous  crop, 
f'']re  I  have  found  great  difficulty  in  protecting  it  from  the 
ravages  of  immense  flocks  of  birds,  which  it  attracts,  and  in 
securing  it  sufficiently  early  to  prevent  a  large  part  of  the 
grain  from  being  left  on  the  ground.  The  seeds  on  the  up- 
per parts  of  the  stalks  generally  ripen  and  fall  before  those 
below  have  been  filled.  I  therefore  invariably  cut  it  when 
the  upper  parts  of  most  of  the  heads  contain  seeds  which 
are  hard.  All  my  observations  have  confirmed  me  in  the 
belief,  that  in  this  stage  it  affords  fodder  more  nutritious, 
and  more  easily  made,  than  any  sort  of  hay.  The  expense 
of  tilling  the  land,  in  the  accurate  manner  which  I  have  de- 
tailed, is  not  so  great  as  at  first  view  would  appear.  A  yoke 
of  good  oxen  can  scarify  three  acres  and  a  half,  without 
difficuiLy,  in  one  day.  I  Avould  recommend  millet,  not  merely 
for  its  value  as  a  food,  but  for  the  means  it  affords  of  making 
clean  the  land,  without  summer  fallows,  or  drill  crops.  The 
ingenious  arguments  which  have  been  adduced  to  prove  that 
deep  stirring  between  growing  crops  is  advantageous  to  them 
and  the  soil,  are  founded  upon  English  experience,  properly 
directed  by  close  attention  to  the  effects  of  a  moist  climate. 
Some  of  our  writers  have  profoundly  asserted,  that  as  '  dew 


148 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


drops'  are  found  on  the  under  leaves  of  plants  after  deep  stir- 
ring has  been  given  in  a  time  of  great  drought,  the  practice  is 
sound.  I  should  suggest,  if  I  vi^ere  allowed,  that  moisture 
had  better  be  at  such  times  conveyed  to  the  roots,  than  be 
exhaled  by  the  sun,  or  placed  on  the  leaves  until  his  rays 
shall  have  exhausted  it  all.  The  valuable  parts  of  most  ma- 
nures readily  assume  the  gaseous  form ;  every  deep  stirring, 
to  a  certain  extent,  in  hot  weather,  therefore,  impoverishes 
the  soil.  Deep  ploughing,  at  proper  seasons,  is,  I  conceive, 
the  basis  of  all  good  farming.  Such  crops  as  shall  enable  the 
husbandman  to  extirpate  weeds,  and  obtain  large  supplies  of 
fodder,  without  much  exhaustion,  should  be  the  great  objects 
for  his  aim.  I  would  propose  that  a  foi.1  sward  receive  its 
proper  quantity  of  quicklime,  which  should  be  spread  and 
ploughed  under,  in  its  caustic  state,  in  the  early  part  of  Sep- 
tember ;  that  the  field  be  harrowed  sufficiently  ;  sown  with 
rye  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  per  acre,  as  early  as  possible  ; 
that  it  be  depastured  late  in  the  autumn  and  early  in  the 
spring  ;  that  in  May  it  be  again  ploughed,  three  inches  deeper 
than  before ;  that  it  be  harrowed,  and  left  until  the  small 
weeds  begin  to  appear.  Early  in  June  millet  should  be  sown; 
in  August  the  crop  can  be  removed,  after  the  labors  of  the 
general  harvest.  The  field  should  be  slightly  stirred  with 
the  scarifier,  occasionally  harrowed,  and  left  throughout 
September,  for  the  destruction  of  weeds,  as  before.  In  Octo- 
ber it  may  be  manured,  and  sown  with  wheat,  or  left  for  a 
crop  of  Indian  corn. 


BUCKWHEAT.  {Polygonum.)  In  light  lands  this  crop 
may  be  raised  to  advantage.  In  this  climate  it  should  not 
be  sown  till  after  the  middle  of  May.  One  bushel  is  seed 
enough  for  an  acre,  if  sown  broad-cast,  as  is  usual ;  but  if 
sown  in  drills,  less  than  half  that  quantity  is  sufficient.  In 
the  state  of  New  York,  farmers  sow  it  in  August  with  win- 
ter wheat.  It  affords  them  a  ripe  crop  in  the  fall,  without 
injuring  the  crop  of  wheat,  which  grows  with  and  succeeds  it. 

Buckwheat  is  harvested  by  mowing,  in  the  manner  of 
barley.  After  it  is  mown  it  should  be  several  days  before  it 
is  housed.  It  is  in  no  danger  of  the  seeds  falling,  nor  does 
it  suffer  much  by  wet.  From  its  great  succulency  it  is  lia- 
ble to  heat  in  a  mow,  on  which  account  it  is  better  to  put  it 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  149 

into  small  stacks  of  five  or  six  loads  each,  than  either  a  large 
one,  or  in  a  barn. 

Mr.  Loudon  observes,  '  that  the  use  of  the  grain  of  buck- 
wheat in  Great  Britain  is  almost  entirely  for  feeding  poultry, 
pigeons,  and  swine.  It  may  also  be  given  to  horses,  which 
are  said  to  thrive  well  upon  it ;  but  the  author  of  the  New 
Farmer's  Calendar  says  he  thinks  he  has  seen  it  produce  a 
stupefying  effect.  Young  says  that  'a  bushel  of  buckwheat 
goes  farther  than  two  bushels  of  oats,  and  mixed  with  at 
least  four  times  as  much  bran,  will  be  found  sufficient  for  a 
horse  a  week.  Eight  bushels  of  buckwheat  meal  will  go  as 
far  as  twelve  bushels  of  barley  meal.' 

The  meal  of  buckwheat  is  made  into  thin  cakes,  called 
crumpets,  in  Italy,  and  in  some  parts  of  England.  Buck- 
wheat pancakes  are  likewise  common,  and  thought  to  be 
wholesome  as  well  as  palatable,  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States.  Buckwheat  blossoms  afford  rich  food  for  bees,  and 
are  useful  as  well  from  the  quantity  of  honey  which  they 
enable  the  bees  to  make,  as  the  long  time  they  continue  with- 
out fading  or  ceasing  to  be  fragrant.  On  this  account  the 
buckwheat  plant  is  highly  prized  in  France  and  Germany ; 
and  Du  Hamel  advises  bee-keepers  to  carry  their  hives  to 
fields  of  this  crop  in  autumn,  as  well  as  to  heath  lands. 

The  Farmer's  Assistant  says,  '  We  cannot  recommend  the 
culture  of  buckwheat  on  lands  which  are  suitable  for  more 
valuable  crops;  but  on  light  smooth  lands,  particularly,  the 
farmer  may  find  his  account  in  keeping  a  field  of  a  few  acres 
for  a  yearly  crop  of  buckwheat,  as  well  for  family  use  as  for 
assisting  in  fattening  his  swine,  &c.  A  bushel  of  gypsum  to 
the  acre,  or  perhaps  less,  applied  yearly  to  the  ground,  would 
be  found  to  keep  it  rich  enough  for  good  crops.' 


RICE.  {Oriza  Sativa.)  This  is  a  genus  of  plants,  con- 
sisting of  several  species,  which,  however,  may  be  divided 
into  two  varieties,  viz.  mountain  rice,  which  grows  in  dry 
elevated  soils,  and  marsh  rice,  sown  in  low  swampy  districts. 
The  former  kind  was  raised  by  Mr.  Bordley  on  dry  sandy 
land,  near  Annapolis,  in  Maryland.  It  is  perhaps  possible 
that  this  plant  may  be  gradually  introduced  into  the  north- 
ern states,  and  made  to  grow  in  dry  and  elevated  ground. 
This  is  much  to  be  desired,  as  rice  is  the  cheapest  nutriment 
13# 


150  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

known,  containing,  it  is  said,  ninety-six  parts  in  a  hundred 
of  nutritive  matter. 

The  Farmer's  Assistant  gives  the  following  directions  for 
the  culture  of  this  plant:  '  Early  in  the  spring,  the  ground  is 
to  be  fitted  with  the  plough  for  the  reception  of  tlie  seed, 
which  is  to  be  drilled  in,  in  rows,  at  the  distance  of  about 
twenty-seven  inches  apart.  When  the  young  plants  have 
acquired  a  suitable  height,  the  weeds  are  to  be  eradicated 
from  the  crop  with  the  plough,  or  with  a  small  harrow  to  be 
guided  by  handles  behind,  run  twice  between  the  rows,  and 
the  work  is  then  completed  by  the  hoe,  and  perhaps  some 
hand  weeding. 

'  In  due  season  after  this  the  water  is  to  be  occasionally  let 
on  the  ground,  for  the  purpose  of  killing  the  weeds  and  grass ; 
and  then  to  be  let  off  again,  in  order  that  the  crop  may  have 
such  farther  ploughing  and  hoeing  as  may  be  found  necessa- 
ry. If  water  is  not  used,  the  growing  crop  is  to  be  kept 
clear  of  weeds,  like  other  hoed  crops,  till  the  ground  becomes 
sufficiently  shaded  to  prevent  farther  trouble  from  them. 

'  The  grain  will  be  found  sufficiently  ripened  while  the 
stalks  are  still  green ;  and  on  this  account  they  are  valuable 
as  a  substitute  for  hay.  If  the  crop  be  flooded,  the  water  is 
to  be  let  off  in  due  season,  so  that  the  ground  can  be  laid 
sufficiently  dry  before  harvesting.  With  regard  to  this  ope- 
ration, we  will  merely  observe,  that  he  who  understands  the 
manner  of  harvesting  wheat,  rye,  barley,  or  oats,  need  be  at 
no  los3  as  to  the  best  method  of  gathering  this  crop  ;  remem- 
bering, however,  that  the  straw  should  be  sufficiently  dried 
before  threshing  or  stowing  the  crop  away.' 


HOPS.  The  following  was  written  by  William  Blan- 
ch ard,  Jun.  Esq.,  and  first  published  in  the  New  England 
Farmer,  vol.  ii.  p.  52. 

'  The  hop  is  a  native  plant.  It  is  found  growing  sponta- 
neously on  the  banks  and  intervals  of  many  of  our  large 
rivers.  There  are  several  distinct  species,  all  bearing  a  near 
affinity  to  each  other;  (I  have  noticed  five.)  At  present 
they  are  cultivated  together,  promiscuously ;  no  preference 
having  been  given  to  any  particular  one  of  them  by  the 
brewer.  But  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  there  is  an  essential 
difference  in  their  qualities;  that  one  may  be  the  best  for  pale 
ale,  another  for  strong  beer,  and  a  third  for  porter ;  and  I 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  151 

presume,  ere  long,  particular  attention  will  be  paid  to  ascer- 
tain their  different  qualities. 

'  The  soil  best  calculated  for  the  production  of  hops  I 
consider  to  be  a  sandy  loam,  rather  low  and  moist.  I  am 
led  to  this  conclusion  partly  from  my  own  observation,  and 
farther  (considering  nature  an  infallible  instructer)  from 
finding  the  lands  which  produce  them  naturally  (intervals 
and  the  banks  of  large  rivers)  to  be  of  this  kind.  Yet,  I 
must  observe,  I  have  seen  very  fine  crops  raised  on  very  dif- 
ferent soils. 

'  I  should  recommend  the  following  mode  of  preparing 
the  land  and  managing  the  crop.  In  the  fall  (October) 
plough  the  land  deep,  nine  or  ten  inches.  In  the  spring  fol- 
lowmg,  pass  a  heavy,  sharp  iron-toothed  harrow  over  the 
land  in  the  same  direction  it  was  ploughed ;  after  which, 
spread  your  manure  evenly  over  the  same,  sixteen  cords  per 
acre,  and  more  if  the  laud  be  much  reduced  ;  then  cross- 
plough  the  land  nearly  the  same  depth,  and  furrow  it  as  for 
planting  corn,  the  furrows  to  be  at  least  four  feet  apart. 

'  It  is  customary  to  plant  corn  or  potatoes  with  the  hops  ; 
(I  should  prefer  potatoes.)  Plant  every  other  hill  in  every 
other  low  with  haps,  thus  placing  the  hep  hills  at  least  eight 
feet  apart.  Put  four  cuttings  from  the  running  roots,  about 
eight  inches  in  length,  into  each  hill,  and  cover  them  the 
common  depth  of  potatoes. 

*  Many  yards  have  been  much  injured  by  being  planted  too 
closely.  It  is  of  great  importance  to  have  the  hills  so  far 
distant  from  each  other  as  to  admit  a  free  current  of  air  to 
pass  through  the  yard. 

'  All  the  attention  requisite  the  first  season  after  the  hops 
are  planted,  is  to  keep  them  clean  from  weeds,  which  is  easi- 
ly done  when  hoeing  the  crop  planned  amongst  them.  In 
the  fall,  (October,)  to  prevent  their  being  injured  by  the  hard 
frosts  of  winter,  carry  on  and  lay  out  of  your  cart  one 
shovelful  of  compost  manure  on  the  top  of  each  hill ;  ma- 
nure from  the  hogsty  I  should  prefer. 

'  In  each  following  spring,  before  the  hops  are  opened,  as 
it  is  termed,  spread  evenly  over  the  yard  about  eight  cords 
of  manure  per  acre,  (coarse,  strawy  manure  I  should  pre- 
fer, as  it  will  have  a  tendency  to  keep  the  land  loose,) 
and  plough  the  field  both  ways  at  the  first  hoeing.  Tftey 
require  but  three  hoeings  in  a  season,  unless  necessary  to 
subdue  the  weeds ;  the  last  of  which  should  be  performed 


152  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

when  the  hops  are  in  full  blossom,  (about  the  beginning  of 
August.) 

'  After  the  first  crop,  it  is  necessary  to  open  the  hops, 
every  spring,  by  the  middle  of  May ;  which  is  performed  by 
making  four  furrows  between  the  rows,  turning  the  furrows 
from  the  hills,  and  running  th-^  plough  as  near  to  the  same 
as  possible  without  injuring  the  main  roots.  Then  the  earth 
is  removed  from  the  roots  with  a  hoe,  all  the  running  roots 
cut  in,  with  a  sharp  knife,  within  two  inches  of  the  main  roots  ; 
the  tops  of  the  main  roots  must  also  be  cut  in,  and  then 
the  hills  coveved  with  earth  about  two  inches  deep. 

'  The  next  thing  necessary  to  be  done  is  to  set  the  poles. 
This  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  hop-vines  begin  to  make 
their  appearance.  By  so  doing,  much  time  and  labor  will 
be  saved  in  tying  up  the  vines  to  the  poles,  as  many  of  the 
vines  will  naturally  take  to  the  poles.  There  should  not  be 
to  exceed  two  vines  to  one  pole,  nor  to  exceed  two  poles  to 
one  hill,  nor  any  pole  to  exceed  sixteen  feet  in  height. 
Many  yards  have  been  very  much  injured  by  letting  a  greater 
number  of  vines  gro\v^  on  one  pole,  and  almost  destroyed  by 
over-poling. 

'  Very  much  depends  on  paying  due  attention,  in  the 
spring,  to  select  the  most  thrifty  vines,  and  training  them  to 
the  poles,  which  is  done  by  fastening  them  to  the  poles  with 
a  piece  of  yarn,  slightly  twisted  together  with  the  thumb  and 
finger. 

'  It  will  be  necessary  to  inspect  your  hop-yard  frequently, 
until  the  hops  begin  to  blossom,  and  "  tie  up  the  vines,"  as 
it  is  termed,  as  they  are  subject  to  be  blown  off  the  poles  by 
every  high  wind. 

'  As  soon  as  the  hops  are  ripe,  which  is  about  the  begin- 
ning of  September,  they  must  be  immediately  gathered,  or 
the  crop  is  lost.  The  quality  of  the  hops  depends  consi- 
derably on  their  being  picked  clean  from  leaves  and  stems. 
The  labor  of  picking  or  gathering  the  hops  may  be  well  per- 
formed by  women  and  children,  having  one  man  to  a  bin  to 
handle  the  poles  and  to  inspect  the  pickers.  The  bin  is  a 
wooden  box,  about  nine  feet  long,  three  feet  wide,  and  two 
and  a  half  feet  high,  made  of  thin  pine  boards,  that  it  may 
be  easily  moved  over  the  yard,  across  which  the  poles  are 
laid,  and  into  which  the  hops  are  picked  by  hand.  Care 
should  be  taken,  when  gathering  the  hops,  to  cut  the  vines 
two  feet  from  the  ground,  that  the  roots  may  not  be  injured 
by  bleeding. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  153 

'  The  most  important  part  in  the  management  of  hops  is 
the  curing  or  drying  of  them.  Here  I  would  note  that 
hops  always  grow  first  sort,  and  that  all  second  sort  and 
refuse  hops  are  made  so  by  unfortunate  or  unskilful  ma- 
nagement. 

'  Much  depends  on  having  a  well  constructed  kiln.  For 
the  convenience  of  putting  the  hops  on  the  kiln,  the  side  of 
a  hill  is  generally  chosen  for  its  situation.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  it  be  a  dry  situation.  The  kiln  should  be  dug  out 
the  same  bigness  at  the  bottom  as  at  the  top ;  the  side  walls 
laid  up  perpendicularly,  and  filled  in  solid  with  stone,  to  give 
it  a  tunnel  form.  Twelve  feet  square  at  the  top,  two  feet 
square  at  the  bottom,  and  at  least  eight  feet  deep,  is  deemed 
a  convenient  size.  On  the  top  of  the  walls  sills  are  laid, 
having  joists  let  into  them  in  like  manner  as  for  laying  a 
floor;  on  which  laths,  about  one  and  a  half  inches  wide,  are 
nailed,  leaving  open  spaces  between  them  three-fourths 
of  an  inch,  over  which  a  thin  linen  cloth  is  spread  and  nailed 
at  the  edges  to  the  sills.  A  board  about  twelve  inches  wide 
is  set  up  on  each  side  of  the  kiln,  on  the  inner  edge  of  the 
sill,  to  form  a  bin  to  receive  the  hops.  The  larger  the  stones 
made  use  of  in  the  construction  of  the  kiln,  the  better ;  as 
it  will  give  a  more  steady  and  dense  heat.  The  inside  of 
the  kiln  should  be  well  plastered  with  mortar,  to  make  it 
completely  air  tight.  Charcoal  (that  made  from  yellow  birch 
or  maple  I  should  prefer)  is  the  only  fuel  proper  to  be  used 
in  drying  hops.  The  kiln  should  be  well  heated  before  any 
hops  are  put  on,  and  carefully  attended  to  keep  a  steady  and 
regular  heat. 

'  Fifty  pounds  of  hops,  when  dried,  is  the  largest  quantity 
that  should  be  dried  at  one  time,  on  a  kiln  of  this  size  ;  and 
unless  absolutely  necessary  to  put  on  that  quantity,  a  less 
would  dry  better.  The  green  hops  should  be  spread  as  even- 
ly and  as  light  as  possible  over  the  kiln.  The  fire  at  first 
should  be  moderate,  but  it  may  be  increased  as  the  hops  dry 
and  the  steam  is  evaporated. 

'  Hops  should  not  remain  long  in  the  bin  or  bag  after  they 
are  picked,  as  they  will  very  soon  heat  and  become  insipid. 
The  hops  should  7iot  be  stirred  on  the  kiln  until  they  are 
completely  and  fully  dried.  Then  they  should  be  removed 
from  the  kiln  into  a  dry  room  and  laid  in  a  heap,  and  there 
remain,  unmoved  and  unstirred,  until  bagged,  which  is  done 
with  a  screw,  having  a  box  made  of  plank,  the  size  the  bag 
is  wished,  into  which  the  cloth  is  laid,  and  the  hops  screwed 


154  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

into  the  box,  which  is  so  constructed  that  the  sides  may  be 
removed,  and  the  bag  sewed  together  while  in  the  press. 

*  The  hops,  after  laying  a  few  days,  will  gather  a  partial 
moisture,  called  a  sweat.  The  sweat  will  probably  begin  to 
subside  in  about  eight  days,  at  which  time,  and  before  the 
sweat  is  off,  they  ought  to  be  bagged  in  clear  dry  weather. 
As  the  exact  time  when  the  hops  will  begin  to  sweat,  and 
when  the  sweat  will  begin  to  subside  or  dry  off,  (the  proper 
time  to  bag  them,)  will  vary  with  the  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere, it  will  be  necessary  to  examiixC  the  hops  from  day  to 
day,  which  is  easily  done  by  taking  some  of  them  from  the 
centre  of  the  heap  with  your  hand.  If  on  examination  you 
find  the  hops  to  be  very  damp,  and  their  color  altering,  which 
will  be  the  case  if  they  were  not  completely  dried  on  the 
kiln,  and  not  otherwise,  you  must  overhaul  them  and  dry 
them  in  the  air. 

'  The  most  convenient  size  for  a  bag  of  hops  to  handle 
and  transport,  is  about  five  feet  in  length,  and  to  contain 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  The  best  bagging  is 
coarse  strong  tow  cloth  of  our  domestic  manufacturing- ;  next 
to  that,  Russia  hemp  bagging.  The  East  India  sugar  and 
gunny  bags,  so  called,  ought  never  to  be  used.  The  sugar 
bags  are  of  an  unreasonab'a  weight,  and  both  they  and  the 
gunny  bags  are  of  no  value  to  the  brewer ;  whereas  the 
other  bags  are  worth  prime  cost. 

'  It  is  now  common  for  those  who  have  entered  considera- 
bly mto  the  cultivation  of  hops,  to  build  houses  over  their 
kilns,  which,  in  wet  weather,  are  very  convenient ;  other- 
wise, a  kiln  in  the  open  air  would,  in  my  opinion,  be  prefer- 
able. It  is  necessary  to  have  these  buildings  well  ventilated 
with  doors  and  windows  ;  and  to  have  them  kept  onen  night 
and  day,  except  in  wet  weather,  and  then  shut  those  only 
which  are  necessary  to  keep  out  the  rain.  If  a  ventilator 
was  put  in  the  roof  of  the  building,  directly  over  the  centre 
of  the  kiln,  about  six  feet  square,  built  like  those  in  brew- 
eries and  distilleries,  I  am  of  the  opinion  they  would  be 
found  very  advantageous.  I  have  seen  many  lots  of  hops 
much  injured  both  in  color  and  flavor  by  being  dried  in  close 
buildings. 

'  Where  the  houses  over  the  kilns  are  built  large,  for  the 
purpose  of  storing  the  hops  as  they  are  dried,  which  is  a 
great  saving  of  labor,  a  close  partition  should  be  made  be- 
tween the  kilns  and  the  room  in  which  the  hops  are  stored, 
to  prevent  the  damp  steam  from  the  kilns  coming  to  them,  as 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  155 

it  will  color  them,  and  injure  their  flavor  and  quality  very- 
much. 

'  I  expect  that  many  of  our  farmers  will  object  to  the  mode 
of  manuring  hops  which  I  have  recommended,  their  common 
practice  being  to  put  the  manure  in  the  hills  when  they 
plant  the  hops,  and  afterwards  to  apply  the  manure  on  the 
hills  at  the  first  and  second  hoeings.  I  find  u.e  hop-roots 
are  very  liable  to  be  injured  by  the  worms,  and  to  decay. 
My  opinion  is,  that  the  manure  in  the  hill  has  a  tendency  to 
produce  the  worms,  and  its  fermentation  at  their  roots  to 
cause  their  decay  ;  and  that  the  crop  is  not  moro,  if  as  abun- 
dant, as  when  manured  in  the  manner  I  have  recommended : 
and,  farther,  that  a  hop-yard  manured  in  this  manner  will 
continue  in  a  healthy  state  for  many  years. 

'  I  also  expect  the  quantity  of  manure  1  have  recommend- 
ed will  be  objected  to  by  many,  it  being  the  common  re- 
ceived opinion,  that  hops  should  have  little  or  no  manure. 
I  find  it  a  general  complaint  amongst  the  farmers  where  hops 
have  been  cultivated  many  years,  that  the  quantity  raised 
per  acre  does  not  exceed  the  one-half  raised  by  their  ances- 
tors on  the  same  land ;  inferring  that  the  "  hops  are  running 
out,"  as  it  is  termed,  and  cannot  now  be  cultivated  to  ad- 
vantage. Hops,  1  believe,  in  common  with  all  sorts  cf  grain 
and  vegetables,  flourish  best  and  produce  the  finest  crops 
when  cultivated  on  new  lands,  which  require  little  or  no  ma- 
nure ;  and  such  were  the  lands  which  their  ancestors  cul- 
tivated. The  same  complaint  I  presume  would  be  made 
against  all  sorts  of  grain  and  vegetables,  if  raised  with  little 
or  no  manure,  on  lands  that  have  long  been  cultivated. 

'  From  my  own  observations,  1  am  confident  that  no  crop 
can  be  more  improved  and  increased  by  high  cultivation 
than  hops.' 


PEA.  {Pisum  sativum.)  The  pea  is  a  hardy  annual,  a 
native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  cultivated  in  Great  Britain 
from  time  immemorial,  and  in  this  country  from  its  first  set- 
tlement. 

Times  of  Sowing.  '  The  dwarfs  are  generally  employed 
in  hotbed  culture,  which,  however,  succeeds  badly,  and  is 
neither  worth  preserving  nor  describing,  and  the  less  so  as 
early  crops  may  be  more  certainly  had  by  sowing  in  the  fall, 
in  sheltered  situations,  and  covering  during  the  winter  with 


156  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

a  layer  of  leaves,  and  another  of  long  stable-litter,  loosely 
applied,  to  keep  the  leaves  in  their  places.  After  the  earth 
takes  a  temperature  favorable  to  vegetation,  your  pea  sow- 
ings should  be  made  once  a  fortnight,  to  keep  up  a  regular 
and  success! /e  supply.' — Armstrong. 

Quantity  of  Seed.  '  Of  the  small,  early  kinds,  one  pint 
will  sow  a  row  of  twenty  yards ;  for  the  larger  sorts,  for 
main  crops,  the  same  measure  will  sow  a  row  of  thirty-three 
yards.' 

Process  in  Sowing.  '  For  early  sorts,  make  the  drills  one 
inch  and  a  half  deep  ;  and  let  parallel  drills  be  two  feet  and 
a  half,  three,  or  four  feet  asunder.  Peas  that  are  to  grow 
without  sticks  require  the  least  room.  For  summer  crops 
and  large  sorts,  make  the  drills  two  inches  deep,  and  four, 
five,  or  six  feet  asunder.  As  to  the  distances  along  the  drill, 
distribute  the  peas  according  to  their  size  and  the  season  : 
the  frapie,  three  in  the  space  of  an  inch ;  the  Charltons, 
Hotspur,  and  dwarf  marrowfat,  two  in  an  inch ;  the  Prus- 
sian blue  and  middle-sized  sorts,  three  in  two  inches  ;  the 
large  marrowfat  and  Knight's,  a  full  inch  apart ;  the  moratto, 
rouncivals,  and  most  larger  sorts,  an  inch  and  a  half  apart ; 
and  the  Patagonian,  two  inches.' 

Soil  and  Situation.  '  The  soil  should  be  moderately  rich, 
and  the  deeper  and  stronger  for  the  lofty  growers.  Peas 
are  not  assisted,  but  hurt,  by  unreduced  dung  recently  turned 
in.  A  fresh,  sandy  loam,  or  road-stuff,  and  a  little  decora- 
posed  vegetable  matter,  is  the  best  manure.  The  soil  for  the 
early  crops  should  be  very  dry,  and  rendered  so,  where  the 
ground  is  moist,  by  mixing  sand  with  the  earth  of  the  drills.' 
— Loudon. 

Armstrong  says,  'A  loose  and  warm  soil*  is  most  favora- 
ble to  this  vegetable,  which,  by  the  way,  is  neither  improved 
in  quality  nor  quantity  by  stable  manure.  The  soil  of 
Clichy,  and  of  Point  de  Jour  des  Colombe,  &c.,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Paris,  is  a  pure  sand,  principally  devoted  to  pea 
crops,  and  yielding  these  most  abundantly  without  the  ap- 
plication of  dung  new  or  old.' 

Subsequent  Culture.  'As  the  plants  rise  from  half  an  inch 
high  to  two  or  three  inches,  begin  to  draw  earth  to  the 
stems,  doing  this  when  the  ground  is  in  a  dry  state,  and 
earthing  gradually  higher  as  the  stems  ascend.  At  the  same 
time,  with  the  hoe,  loosen  the  ground  between  the  young 
plants,  and  cut  down  rising  weeds.  Early  crops  should  be 
protected  during  hard  frosts  by  dry  straw  or  other  light  lit- 


AND    RURAL   ECONOMIST.  157 

ter,  laid  upon  sticks  or  brushwood  ;  but  remove  the  cover- 
ing as  soon  as  the  weather  turns  mild.  If,  in  April,  May, 
and  the  course  of  the  summer,  dry  woather  occurs,  watering 
will  be  necessary,  especially  to  plants  in  blossom  and  swell- 
ing the  fruit ;  and  this  trouble  will  be  repaid  in  the  produce. 
Rows  partly  cut  off  may  be  made  up  by  transplantinor.  In 
dry  weather,  water,  and  in  hot  weather,  shade,  until  the 
plants  strike.  All  peas  fruit  better  for  sticking,  and  continue 
longer  productive,  especially  the  larger  sorts.  Stick  the 
plants  when  from  six  to  twelve  inches  high,  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  vine.  Provide  branchy  sticks  of  such  a  height  as 
the  sort  will  require ;  for  the  frame  and  Leadmans  dwarf, 
three  feet  high ;  for  the  Charlton  and  middle-sized,  four  or 
five  feet ;  for  the  marrowfat  and  larger  kinds,  six  or  eight 
feet ;  for  the  rouncival,  and  for  Knight's  marrow-pea,  nine  or 
ten  feet.  Place  a  row  of  sticks  to  each  line  of  peas,  on  the 
most  sunny  side,  east  or  south,  that  the  attraction  of  the  sun 
may  incline  the  plants  towards  the  sticks.  Place  about 
half  the  number  on  the  opposite  side,  and  let  both  rows 
stand  rather  wider  at  top  than  at  the  ground.  Some  garden- 
ers stop  the  leading  shoot  of  the  most  early  crop  when  in 
blossom  ;  a  device  which  accelerates  the  setting  and  maturity 
of  the  fruit. 

To  forward  an  early  Crop.  '  Soav  or  plant  in  lines  from 
east  to  west,  and  stick  a  row  of  spruce-fir  [or  other  evergreen] 
branches  along  the  north  side  of  every  row,  and  sloping  so 
as  to  bend  over  the  plants,  at  one  foot  or  eighteen  inches 
from  the  ground.  As  the  plants  advance  in  height,  vary  the 
position  of  the  branches,  so  as  they  may  always  protect 
them  from  perpendicular  cold  or  rain,  and  yet  leave  them 
open  to  the  full  influence  of  the  spring  sun.  Some  cover 
during  nights  and  in  severe  weather  with  two  boards,  nailed 
together  leng/hwise,  at  right  angles,  which  forms  a  very  se- 
cure and  easily-managed  covering,  but  excludes  light.  A 
better  plan  would  be  to  glaze  one  of  the  sides,  to  be  kept  to 
the  south,  and  to  manage  sich  row-glasses,  as  they  might  be 
called,  when  over  peas,  beans,  spinage,  &c.,  as  hand-glasses 
are  managed  when  over  cauliflower ;  that  is,  to  take  them 
ofTin  fme  weather,  or  raise  them  constantly  or  occasionally 
by  brickbats,  or  other  props,  as  the  weather  and  the  state  of 
the  crop  might  require.' — Loudon.    • 

Management  of  a  late  Crop.  The  best  variety  for  this 
purpose  is  Knight's  marrow-pea,  which  may  be  sown  at  in- 
tervals of  ten  days  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  June. 
14 


158  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

'  The  ground  is  dug  over  in  the  usual  way,  and  the  spaces 
to  be  occupied  by  the  future  rows  of  peas  are  well  soaked 
with  water.  The  mould  upon  each  side  is  then  collected  so 
as  to  form  ridges  seven  or  eight  inches  above  the  previous 
level  of  the  ground,  and  these  ridges  are  well  watered.  The 
seeds  are  now  sown  in  single  rows,  along  the  tops  of  the 
ridges.  The  plants  grow  vigorously,  owing  to  the  depth  of 
soil  and  abundant  moisture.  If  dry  weather  at  any  time  set 
in,  water  is  applied  profusely  once  a  week.  In  this  way, 
the  plants  continue  green  and  vigorous,  resisting  mildew, 
and  yielding  fruit  till  subdued  by  frost.' — Hort.  Trans,  vol.  ii. 

To  save  Seed.  '  Like  other  vegetables,  the  pea  is  sus- 
ceptible of  considerable  improvement,  and  by  the  simple 
means  of  marking  the  finest  plants  of  each  variety,  and  keep- 
ing them  for  seed.  Wilson's  frame  and  the  Knight  pea 
have  been  formed  in  this  way,  and  afford  sufficient  proof  of 
the  wonders  produced  by  a  very  small  degree  of  observation 
and  care.' — Armstrong. 

Field-culture  of  the  Pea.  The  most  common  mode  of 
sowing  peas  is  broad-cast ;  but  the  advantages  of  the  row 
culture,  in  a  crop  so  early  committed  to  the  ground,  must 
be  obvious.  Loudon  says,  '  In  Kent,  Avhere  immense  quanti- 
ties of  peas  are  raised,  both  for  gathering  green  and  for 
selling  ripe  to  the  seedsmen,  they  are  generally  sown  in 
rows  from  eighteen  inches  to  three  feet  asunder,  according  to 
the  kind,  and  well  cultivated  between.  Peas  laid  a  foot 
below  the  surface  will  vegetate ;  but  the  most  approved 
depth  is  six  inches  in  light  soil,  and  four  inches  in  clay  soil ; 
for  which  reason  they  ought  to  be  sown  under  furrow  when 
the  ploughing  is  delayed  till  spring.  Of  all  grain,  beans  ex- 
cepted, they  are  in  the  least  danger  of  being  buried  too  deep.' 
— Loudon. 

Deane  observed,  that  'for  field  peas,  land  that  is  newly 
ploughed  out  of  sward  is  generally  accounted  best ;  and 
land  which  is  high  and  dry,  and  has  not  been  much  dunged. 
A  light,  loamy  soil  is  most  suitable  for  them  ;  and  if  it 
abound  with  slaty  stones,  it  is  the  better.  But  they  will  do 
in  any  dry  soil.  The  manures  that  suit  peas  best  are  marl 
and  lime.  Our  farmers  do  not  commonly  allow  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  seed  for  peas,  in  broad-cast  sowing.  When  peas 
are  sowed  thin,  the  plants  will  lie  on  the  ground,  and  per- 
haps rot ;  when  they  are  thick,  the  plants  will  hold  each 
other  up  with  their  tendrils,  forming  a  continued  web,  and 
will  have  more  benefit  of  the  air.' 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  l59 

Insects  and  Diseases. .  The  Massachusetts  Agricnltural  Re- 
pository,  for  June,  1822,  contains  some  remarks  of  the  Hon. 
T.  Pickering,  relative  to  a  bug  or  fly,  {bruchus  pisi,)  which 
preys  on  the  pea,  in  which  he  observes,  that  an  effectual 
remedy  for  this  evil  is  late  sowiiig ;  but  the  hot  sun  of  June 
will  so  pinch  the  vines  of  the  late  sown  peas,  that  the  crop 
will  be  small,  unless  the  land  be  moist  as  well  as  rich.  He 
then  details  some  experiments,  by  which  he  concludes  that 
this  insect  is  limited  to  a  certain  period  for  depositing  its 
eggs  ;  and  if  the  tender  pods  are  not  found  till  that  period 
has  passed,  the  peas  will  be  free  from  bugs.  Colonel  Wor- 
thington,  of  Rensellaer  county,  Mew  York,  '  sowed  his  peas 
on  the  10th  of  June,  six  years  in  succession,  and  a  bug  has 
never  been  seen  in  his  peas ;  whereas  his  neighbors,  who 
have  not  adopted  this  practice,  have  scarcely  a  pea  without 
a  bug  in  it.  He  supposes  the  season  for  depositing  the  Qgg 
of  the  pea-bug  is  passed  before  the  peas  are  in  flower.' — 
Memoirs  of  New  York  Board  of  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.  p.  23. 
'  The  only  insect  that  commonly  injures  our  peas  is  a  small 
brown  bug  or  fly,  the  egg  [or  larva]  of  which  is  deposited  in 
them  when  they  are  young,  and  the  pods  easily  perforated. 
The  insect  does  not  come  out  of  its  nest  till  he  is  furnished 
v.'ith  short  wings.  They  diminish  the  peas  in  which  they 
lodge  nearly  one-half,  and  their  leavings  are  fit  only  for  the 
food  of  swine.  The  bugs,  however,  will  be  all  gone  out  if 
you  keep  them  to  the  following  autumn.  But  they  who  eat 
buggy  peas  the  winter  after  they  are  raised,  must  run  the 
venture  of  eating  the  insects.' — Deane's  Neio  England  Far- 
mer. 

The  same  writer  recommends,  when  seed  peas  are  known 
or  suspected  to  contain  insects,  to  scald  them  a  quarter  of  a 
minute  in  boiling  water,  spread  them  about,  and  sow  them 
without  delay.  If  any  of  the  bugs  should  be  in  the  peas,  this 
scalding  will  destroy  them ;  and  the  peas,  instead  of  being 
hurt,  will  come  up  the  sooner,  and  grow  the  faster. 

Mildew  is  another  evil  attending  peas,  especially  such  as 
are  sown  late  in  the  season.  This  disorder  is  supposed  by 
Knight  to  be  caused  by  '  a  want  of  a  sufficient  supply  of 
moisture  from  the  soil,  with  excess  of  humidity  in  the  air, 
particularly  if  the  plants  be  exposed  to  a  temperature  below 
that  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed.'  The  remedy 
which  he  recommends  is,  to  '  give  water  rather  profusely 
once  a  week,  or  nine  days,  even  if  the  weather  proves  show- 
ery.'— See  Nciv  England  Farmer,  vol.  i.  p.  414. 


160  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

Use.  The  use  of  peas  for  soups  and  other  culinary  pur- 
poses is  well  known.  They  are  likewise  very  serviceable  in 
fattening  hogs,  for  which  purpose  they  should  be  harvested 
dry,  and  ground  into  meal.  If  the  straw  be  forward  in  au- 
tumn, and  has  been  harvested  without  injury,  it  will  be  little 
inferior  to  ordinary  hay  for  feeding  cattle. 

'  In  boiling  split  peas,  some  samples,  without  reference  to 
variety,  fall  or  moulder  dow^n  freely  into  pulp,  while  others 
continue  to  maintain  their  form.  The  former  are  called 
boileij.  This  property  of  boiling  depends  on  the  soil :  stiff 
land,  or  sandy  land  that  has  been  limed  or  marled,  uniformly 
produces  peas  that  will  not  melt  in  boiling,  no  matter  what 
the  variety  may  be.' — Loudon. 

'When  peas  are  sown  before  winter,  or  early  in  spring, 
they  are  very  apt  to  be  eaten  by  mice.  To  prevent  this, 
soak  the  peas  for  a  day  or  two  in  train  oil  before  you  sow 
them,  which  will  encourage  their  vegetation,  and  render  them 
so  obnoxious  to  the  mice  that  they  will  not  eat  them.' — 
Domestic  Encyclopedia. 


BEANS.  Loudon  gives  the  following  directions  for  the 
culture  of  runners.,  or  pole-heans,  as  they  are  commonly  call- 
ed in  this  country  : — The  runner  kidney  beans  may  be  sown 
in  a  small  portion  towards  the  end  of  April,  [about  the  mid- 
dle of  May  in  New  England,]  if  tolerably  warm,  dry  wea- 
ther ;  but  as  these  beans  are  rather  more  tender  than  the 
dwarf  sorts,  more  liable  to  rot  in  the  ground  by  wet  and  cold, 
especially  the  scarlets,  the  beginning  or  middle  of  May  [first 
of  June  in  New  England]  will  be  time  enough  to  sow  a 
considerable  crop ;  and  you  may  sow  a  full  crop  about  the 
beginning  of  June.  Allot  principally  the  scarlet  and  large 
white  runners.  Some  Dutch  runners  are  very  eligible  as  a 
secondary  crop.  The  first  crops  should  have  the  assistance 
of  a  south  wall.  Intermediate  crops  may  be  sown  in  any 
open  compartment,  or  against  any  fence  not  looking  north. 
The  latest  sown  will  continue  bearing  longer  under  a  good 
aspect  and  shelter.  In  sowing,  draw  drills  about  an  inch 
and  a  half,  or  not  more  than  two  inches  deep.  Let  parallel 
rows  be  at  least  four  feet  asunder,  to  admit  in  the  intervals 
tall  sticks  or  poles  for  the  plants  to  climb  on.  Place  the 
beans  in  the  drills  four  inches  apart,  and  earth  them  in  evenly 
the  depth  of  the   drills.     A  row  contiguous  to  a  fence  or 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  161 

building  may  ascend  upon  lines.  Some  may  be  sown  in  a 
sinjrlc  row  along  a  border,  or  on  each  side  of  a  walk,  and 
have  the  support  of  a  slight  trellis  of  laths  and  lines ;  or 
they  might  be  arched  over  with  similar  materials  to  form  a 
shady  walk  or  bower.  In  a  cold,  wet  season,  or  when  re- 
quisite to  have  a  few  plants  more  forward  than  the  general 
crop,  some  scarlets  may  be  soM'n  in  April,  either  in  a  slight 
hotbed,  or  in  pots,  under  frames  of  hand-glasses,  to  raise 
and  forward  the  plants,  till  two  or  three  inches  high :  then, 
at  the  end  of  May,  transplant  them  into  the  open  garden. 
As  the  plants  come  up,  and  advance  from  three  to  six  inches 
in  growth,  hoe  some  earth  to  the  stems,  cutting  down  all 
weeds.  When  they  begin  to  send  forth  runners,  place  suita- 
ble supports  to  each  row ;  and  conduct  the  tendrils  to  the 
sticks  or  lines,  turning  them  in  a  contrary  direction  to  the 
sun.  The  ascending  plants  will  soon  come  into  flower,  pod- 
ding at  the  joints,  in  long  succession.  They  are  so  prolific, 
that  the  returns  from  three  sowings,  in  May,  June  and  July, 
will  last  from  July  till  October. 

Taking  the  Crop.  Gather  the  pods,  both  from  dwarfs  and 
runners,  while  they  are  young,  fleshy,  brittle,  and  tender,  for 
then  they  are  in  the  highest  perfection  for  the  table  ;  and  the 
plants  will  bear  more  fully,  and  last  longer  in  fruit,  under  a 
course  of  clean  gathering,  not  leaving  any  superabundant 
pods  to  grow  old. 

To  save  Seed.  Either  sow  a  portion  for  that  object,  or 
leave  rows  wholly  ungathered  of  the  main  crop,  or  preserve 
a  sufliciency  of  good  pods  promiscuously.  The  beans  saved 
should  be  the  first  fruits  of  a  crop  sown  at  a  period  which 
throws  the  entire  course  of  growth  into  the  finest  part  of 
summer.  Let  them  hang  on  the  stalks  till  they  ripen  fully, 
in  August  and  September;  then  let  the  haulm  be  pulled  up 
and  placed  in  the  sun,  to  dry  and  harden  the  seed,  which 
should  be  afterwards  cleared  out  of  the  husks,  bagged  up, 
and  housed. 

The  pea,  English  bean,  and  kidney  bean,  are  liable  to  the 
attacks  of  various  insects,  especially  the  aphides.,  [plant  lice,] 
in  dry  seasons.  When  early  crops  are  newly  sown  or  plant- 
ed, mice  will  burrow  for  and  eat  the  seed,  and  when  it  be- 
gins to  penetrate  the  soil,  it  is  attacked  by  snails,  slugs,  the 
cut-worm,  &c.  The  usual  means  of  guarding  against  the 
ravages  of  insects  must,  therefore,  be  resorted  to  by  the  gar- 
dener. 

As  regards  the  field  culture  of  the  bean,  we  would  observe, 
14# 


162  THF,    COMPLETE    FARMER 

that  the  Avhite  kind,  which  is  most  generally  approved  of  in 
New  England,  will  produce  pretty  good  crops  on  poor, 
sandy,  or  gravelly  soils ;  but,  when  p'anled  on  such  ground, 
it  is  good  husbandry  to  wet  and  rcU  them  in  plaster  before 
planting.  They  may  be  planted  in  hills  or  drills,  the  rows 
two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  apart,  according  to  the  strength 
of  the  soil,  and  cultivated  like  other  hoed  crops.  They  may 
be  planted  the  latter  end  of  May,  or  beginning  of  June,  or 
about  the  time  of  planting  Indian  corn.  If  planted  in  hills, 
they  may  be  placed  from  fourteen  to  twenty-four  inches  apart 
in  the  rows,  and  the  rows  the  distance  before  mentioned. 
Five  beans  are  quite  enough  to  remain  in  a  hill.  Hogs' 
dung,  mixed  with  ashes,  is  said  to  be  the  best  manure  for 
them ;  and  it  is  said  to  be  very  injurious  to  beans  to  hoe 
them  while  the  dew  is  on,  or  in  wet  weather. 

Judge  Buel,  of  Albany,  has  given  the  following  notices 
of  some  experiments  in  the  field  culture  of  this  vegetable : 
'  Beans  may  be  cultivated  in  drills  or  in  hills.  They  are  a 
valuable  crop ;  and,  with  good  care,  are  as  profitable  as  a 
wheat  crop.  They  leave  the  soil  in  good  tilth.  The  China 
bean,  with  a  red  eye,  is  to  be  preferred.  They  ripen  early, 
and  are  very  productive.  I  cultivated  beans  the  last  year 
in  three  difierent  ways,  viz.  in  hills,  in  drills,  and  sowed 
broad-cast.  I  need  not  describe  the  first,  which  is  a  well- 
known  process.  I  had  an  acre  in  drills,  w^hich  was  the  best 
crop  I  ever  saw.  My  management  was  this  :  on  an  acre 
of  light  ground,  where  the  clover  had  been  frozen  out  the 
preceding  winter,  I  spread  eight  loads  of  long  manure,  and 
immediately  ploughed  and  harrowed  the  ground.  Drills  or 
furrows  were  then  made  with  a  light  plough,  at  the  distance 
of  two  and  a  half  feet,  and  the  beans  thrown  along  the  fur- 
rows, about  the  25th  of  May,  by  the  hand,  at  the  rate  of  at 
least  a  bushel  on  the  acre.  I  then  gauged  a  double  mould- 
board  plough,  which  was  passed  once  between  the  rows,  and 
was  followed  by  a  light  one-horse  roller,  which  flattened  the 
ridges.  The  crop  was  twice  cleaned  of  weeds,  by  the  hoe, 
but  not  earthed.  The  product  Avas  more  than  forty-eight 
bushels,  by  actual  measurement.  The  beans  brought  me 
one  dollar  the  bushel  last  fall.  The  third  experiment  was 
likewise  upon  a  piece  of  ground  where  the  clover  had  been 
killed.  It  was  ploughed  about  the  first  of  June,  the  seed 
sown  like  peas,  upon  the  first  furrow,  and  harrowed  in.  The 
drought  kept  them  back  ;  but  about  sixty-five  rods  of  ground, 
on  which  the  experiment  was  made,  gave  a  product  of  twelve 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  163 

and  a  half  bushels.  The  crop  was  too  ripe  when  it  was  har- 
vested, and  as  it  was  cut  with  a  scythe,  I  estimated  that  about 
two  and  a  half  bushels  were  left  upon  the  ground.  No  labor 
was  bestowed  upon  them  from  the  time  they  were  sown  till 
they  were  harvested. 


SWINE.  Notwithstanding  their  evil  propensities,  filthy 
and  mischievous  habits,  and  insatiable  voracity,  swine  are 
very  profitable  animals  to  a  farmer.  Indeed,  every  family 
in  which  there  is  any  cooking  done  should  keep  at  least  one 
hog,  always  confined  in  a  proper  pen,  in  order  to  consume 
the  washing  of  pots,  dishes,  refuse  food,  &c. 

As  much  depends  on  the  breed  of  swine  as  of  any  domes- 
tic animal,  as  relates  to  the  profit  of  keeping.  The  old- 
fashioned,  thin,  long-legged,  long-nosed,  gaunt-bodied  hogs 
are  now,  we  believe,  hardly  tolerated  in  New  England,  and 
are  becoming  as  scarce  as  they  are  ugly  and  unprofitable. 
We  are  but  little  acquainted  with  the  different  breeds  of  their 
successors,  and  shall  not  therefore  assume  the  responsibility 
of  recommending  any  particular  race.  O.  Fiske,  Esq.,  of 
Worcester,  an  able,  enlightened,  and  patriotic  cultivator, 
says,  '  My  hogs  are  of  the  Bedford  breed,  so  called  in  Eng- 
land ;  and  experience  has  proved  to  my  satisfaction  that  this 
breed  is  far  the  best  that  has  been  introduced  into  our  coun- 
try. They  are  quiet  in  their  nature,  fat  easy,  and  with  little 
expense  or  trouble.  I  have  had  some  weigh  at  twelve  months 
old  about  three  hundred  and  forty  pounds,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  eighteen  months  old  four  hundred  pounds.' 

'  The  marks  of  a  good  hog  are  a  moderate  length  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  the  body  ;  the  nose  short  ;  the  cheek 
plump  and  full ;  neck  thick  and  short ;  quarters  full ;  car- 
cass thick  and  full  ;  hair  fin«  and  thin ;  with  a  symmetry 
adapted  to  the  breed  to  which  it  belongs.  Above  all  it  is  es- 
sential that  it  be  of  a  kindly  disposition  to  fatten  early.' 

The  sow  should  be  selected  with  great  care,  broad  and 
straight-backed ;  wide  hips ;  a  great  many  teats ;  short  legs, 
and  fine  bone.  It  is  said  that  the  sow  will  produce  the 
stronger  and  better  litter  if  not  allowed  to  brjed  till  a  year 
old,  and  the  boar  should  not  be  younger  than  that  age  when 
put  to  sows.  Sows  may  be  allowed  to  breed  till  they  are  six 
years  old,  and  boars  till  five ;  and  both  be  made  good  pork 
after  this  period,  by  methods  which  do  not  require  descrip- 


164  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

tion.  One  male,  according  to  the  Complete  Grazier^  should 
not  be  permitted  to  have  access  to  more  than  ten  females  in 
a  year.  Sows  will  usually  have  pigs  twice  a  year,  and 
should  be  put  to  the  males  at  such  times  as  will  bring  one 
litter  in  April  and  another  early  in  September. 

'  Those  sows  are  accounted  the  best  breeders,'  says  the 
Farmer's  Assistant,  '  which  have  about  ten  or  twelve  paps. 
They  should  be  kept  clean  and  well  littered  ;  but  should  not 
have  too  much  litter  at  the  time  of  pigging,  lest  they  OA'er- 
lay  their  pigs  in  it.  At  the  end  of  a  week  or  ten  days,  they 
should  be  let  out  of  their  sties  into  the  yard  for  three  or 
four  hours  each  day.  Where  several  sows  are  farrowing 
about  the  same  time,  they  must  be  kept  in  separate  apart- 
ments in  the  sty,  lest  they  devour  the  pigs  of  each  other. 
Young  sows  will  sometimes  eat  their  own  offspring,  which 
may  be  prevented  by  washing  the  backs  of  the  pigs  in  an 
infusion  of  aloes ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  the  sows  must  be 
watched.  It  is  said  that  supplying  them  with  plenty  of  wa- 
ter at  this  time  will  prevent  any  mischief  taking  place  of 
this  kind.' 

Mr.  Featherstonhaugh  says,  '  Farmers  differ  much  in  their 
plans  of  raising  holding  stock  for  pork ;  some  permitting 
their  shoats  to  run  at  large  eighteen  months,  till  they  are 
penned  up  to  fatten ;  this  is  the  most  troublesome  and  least 
profitable  way ;  others  give  them  a  range  in  clover  pastures, 
and  begin  to  fatten  them  earlier.  I  apprehend  there  is  a 
much  more  profitable  way,  and  attended  with  less  trouble  for 
those  who  have  the  right  breed.  According  to  the  quantity 
of  pork  wanted  should  be  the  number  of  breeding  sows  kept 
over,  and  there  should  be  no  other  hogs  on  the  farm  [that  is, 
kept  over  winter]  but  the  breeding  sows.  These,  when  they 
pig  the  latter  end  of  March,  should  be  fed  in  the  most  at- 
tentive manner,  with  swill  and  shorts.  The  pigs  from  a  full- 
grown  sow  will  generally  be  twelve  in  number  ;  these  should 
be  thinned  down  to  eight,  and  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  feed 
freely  out  of  the  trough  should  be  Aveaned,  and  afterwards 
fed  regularly  with  green  tares,  clover,  boiled  potatoes,  ground 
peas,  unmerchantable  corn,  or  any  other  nourishing  food  ; 
turning  them  out  every  day  into  a  small  yard,  where  there 
is  a  shallow  pond  for  them  to  lie  in.  A  remarkable  breed 
of  pigs,  which  had  been  treated  pretty  much  in  this  manner, 
were  exhibited  at  Duanesburgh  fair;  when  eight  months  old, 
one  of  them  was  slaughtered,  and  weighed  exactly  three 
hundred  and  eleven  pounds ;  they  all  attracted  universal  at- 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  165 

tention,  and  I  never  saw  such  animals  before.  This  method, 
as  it  is  attended  with  little  trouble,  and  leaves  so  small  a 
quantity  of  stock  on  hand  to  winter  over,  appears  to  me  to 
be  more  economical,  in  every  point  of  view,  than  any  other 
which  is  practised."^  In  the  county  of  Kensellaer,  New 
York,  some  farmers  assert  that  '  March  pigs,  killed  abv>ut 
Christmas,  are  the  most  profitable  for  pork.'  Others  say, 
'  pigs  ought  never  to  come  until  June  ;  for  the  cost  of  earlier 
pigs  exceeds  the  profit.'  And,  farther,  we  learn  that  '  the  me- 
thods proposed  for  fattening  hogs  by  the  different  farmers  in 
that  county  are  very  various.  General  H.  Moffit,  H.  Piatt,  Esq., 
colonel  Worthington,  Messrs.  J.  Phillips,  A.  Bush,  and  some 
others,  recommend  keeping  hogs  in  pastures,  with  some  slops 
from  the  dairy,  &c.,  till  near  the  last  of  August;  some  say 
a  little  later.  All  agree  that  near  this  time  they  manifest 
a  disrelish  for  grass.  Small  patches  of  peas,  or  even  of 
corn,  will  then  be  convenient  to  turn  them  into  for  a  few 
weeks.  About  the  first  of  September  begin  with  boiled  po- 
tatoes and  pumpkins,  mashed  together,  with  a  little  Indian 
meal,  ground  oats  and  peas,  or  other  grain,  stirred  into  the 
mixture  after  it  cools.  From  two  to  four  weeks  before  kill- 
ing time,  the  food  should  be  dry  Indian  corn,  and  clean  cold 
water.  Mr.  Yonghans  fattens  his  hogs  in  a  large  yard  or 
field,  with  a  shelter  in  it  to  which  they  may  retire  to  sleep. 
But  elder  Turner  says,  hogs  should  never  know  what  liberty 
is,  but  should  be  kept  close  all  their  lives,  and  as  inactive 
as  possible  ;  that  with  this  method  double  the  quantity  of 
pork  can  be  produced  with  the  same  expense  of  feed.'t 

The  practice  in  Scotland  is  to  rear  swine  chiefly  on  raw 
potatoes,  and  to  fatten  them  on  these  roots  boiled  or  prepar- 
ed by  steam,  with  a  mixture  of  oats,  barley,  or  bean  and 
pea-meal.  Their  troughs  should  be  often  replenished  with 
a  small  quantity  of  food  at  a  time,  and  kept  always  clean, 
and  seasoned  occasionally  with  salt.t  The  Farmer's  Maga- 
zine says,  '  The  outside  leaves  of  cabbages,  salted  and  let 
stand  a  month,  and  then  mixed  with  buttermilk,  will  fat  a 
hog  in  three  weeks.'  Mr.  Marshall  says,  (Midland  Counties, 
V.  p.  453,)  '  Young  pigs  require  ivarm  meat  to  make  them 
groio.  Corn  and  cold  water  will  make  them  healthy ;  but 
warm  beverage  is  considered  as  requisite  to  a  quick  growth.' 

*  Memoirs  of  the  New  York  Board  of  Agriculture,  vol.  i.  p.  332. 
t  Memoirs  of  the  New  York  Board  of  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.  pp.  39,  40. 
:j:  Report  of  Agriculture  in  Scotland. 


166  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

The  same  writer  mentions  another  practice,  which  perhaps 
it  may  be  thought  proper  to  imitate  in  tliis  country,  because 
it  saves  labor  and  care.  Some  English  farmers,  he  says, 
•  keep  two  or  three  little  store  pigs  in  the  fatting  sty.  While 
thft  fatting  hogs  are  taking  their  repast,  the  little  ones  wait 
behind  them,  and  as  soon  as  their  betters  are  served,  lick  out 
the  troughs. 

'  Besides  the  advantage  of  having  by  this  expedient  no 
waste  nor  foul  troughs,  there  is  another.  The  large  pigs 
rise  alertly  to  their  food,  lest  the  small  ones  should  forestall 
them  ;  and  fill  themselves  the  fuller,  knowing  that  they  have 
it  not  again  to  go  to. 

'  The  disadvantage  of  this  practice  is,  I  understand,  the 
large  ones  are  apt  to  lord  it  too  much  over  the  little  ones  ; 
especially  in  a  confined  sty.  If,  however,  they  had  a  sepa- 
rate apartment  assigned  them,  with  an  entrance  too  small  for 
the  fatting  swine  to  follow  them,  this  disadvantage  would  be 
in  a  great  measure  remedied.' 

If  one  wishes  to  fatten  hogs,  and  either  from  indolence  or 
too  much  occupation  does  not  expect  to  give  them  a  con- 
stant and  regular  attention,  perhaps  he  may  adopt  to  advan- 
tage the  following  mode,  pointed  out  by  an  English  writer. 
'Mr.  John  Adams,  of  Cherrington,  near  Newport,  Shrop- 
shire, has  fattened  eight  pigs  in  the  following  cheap  and  easy 
manner:  he  places  two  troughs  in  the  sty,  one  he  fills  with 
raw  potatoes,  the  other  with  peas,  and  gives  no  water  ;  when 
the  pigs  are  dry  they  eat  the  potatoes.  The  eight  pigs  were 
fattened  so  as  to  weigh  from  sixteen  to  twenty  score  each, 
and  ate  no  more  than  thirty^  bushels  of  peas,  and  about  two 
hundred  bushels  of  potatoes.'  No  doubt  dry  Indian  corn 
and  potatoes  might  be  fed  out  in  this  way  with  as  good  an 
effect  as  peas  and  potatoes. 

Rubbing  and  currying  the  hides  of  fattening  hogs  is  of 
great  advantage  to  them.  It  is  not  only  very  grateful  to 
them,  but  conducive  to  their  health.  It  will  be  well,  like- 
wise, in  every  sty  to  place  a  strong  post  for  the  animals  to  rub 
against.  During  the  time  of  their  fattening  they  should  have 
plenty  of  litter,  which  will  be  a  double  advantage,  providing 
for  the  comfort  of  the  animal  and  increasing  the  quantity  of 
manure. 

Boiled  or  steamed  clover  hay  will,  it  is  said,  keep  store 
hogs  in  the  winter,  but  the  addition  of  boiled  or  steamed  po- 
tatoes or  carrots  will  much  increase  the  value  of  the  wash. 
Mr.  Young  directs  to  soil  or  feed  swine  in  a  yard  on  clover. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  167 

cut  up  with  a  scythe,  in  preference  to  pasturing  them  in  the 
field.  But  judge  Peters,  of  Pennsylvania,  says,  '  In  summer 
my  hogs  chiefly  run  on  clover.  Swine  feeding  on  clover  in 
the  fields  will  thrive  wonderfully  ;  when  those  (confined  or 
not)  fed  on  cut  clover  will  fall  away.'  In  Indian  harvest, 
the  unripe  ears  of  corn  should  be  picked  out  and  given  to 
the  hogs  as  fast  as  they  can  eat  them.  Soft  coin  (as  it  is 
called)  will  do  them  much  more  good  in  a  green  than  in  a 
dried  state,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  dry  it  without  its  turn- 
ing niouldy. 

There  is  a  great  advantage  in  boiling,  steaming,  or  baking 
almost  all  sorts  of  food  given  to  swine.  The  last  American 
edition  of  the  Domestic  Encyclopedia  informs,  that  '  Mr. 
Timothy  Kirk,  of  Yorktown,  Pennsylvania,  fed  one  pig  with 
boiled  potatoes  and  Indian  corn,  and  another  with  the  same 
articles  unboiled.  The  two  animals  were  weighed  every 
week,  and  the  difference  between  them  was  as  six  to  nine. 
The  experiment  was  continued  several  weeks,  and  the  ani- 
mals alternrttely  fed  upon  boiled  and  unboiled  food,  with  a 
uniformity  of  result,  which  sufficiently  showed  the  very  great 
profit  arising  from  boiled  food.'  Steaming  will  answer  as 
good  a  purpose  as  boiling,  and  with  a  proper  apparatus  may 
be  more  easily  and  cheaply  effected.^  Potatoes,  meal,  and 
a  little  linseed  boiled  together,  make  a  rich  and  excellent 
wash.  Boiled  linseed,  it  is  said,  has  a  tendency  to  make 
pork  soft  and  oily,  and  should  therefore  be  but  little  if  at  all 
used  towards  the  close  of  the  time  in  which  hogs  are  fatten- 
ing. Grains  of  distilleries  and  the  refuse  of  starch  factories 
are  excellent  for  fattening  swine.  Sweet  apples  are  very 
good  food  for  them,  and  a  change  of  diet  pretty  often  pro- 
motes their  health  and  quickens  the  process  of  fattening. 
Their  meals  should  frequently  be  seasoned  with  a  little  salt. 
The  Complete  Farmer  says  that  '  moist  sedgy  grounds  are 
good  for  swine,  the  roots  which  grow  in  such  soils  they  will 
eat;  likewise  brakes,  ground-nuts,  acorns,  chestnuts,'  &c. 
Dr.  Anderson  said  that  the  hogs  that  are  fed  upon  the  acorns 
that  they  gather  in  the  woods  of  Germany  and  Poland  are 
reckoned  to  yield  the  finest  bacon  of  any  in  Europe  ;  and 
it  is  to  this  that  most  people  ascribe  the  superior  excellence 
of  Westphalia  hams.  It  might  be  well  to  try  acorns  steamed 
or  boiled,  in  order  to  correct  their  crudeness  and  bitterness ; 
and  it  has  been  recommended  to   moisten  them,  and  keep 

*  See  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  i.  p.  23. 


168  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

them  on  hand  till  they  beg^in  to  sprout,  when  they  will  he 
more  sweet  and  nutritious  than  in  their  original  state.  The 
Complete  Farmer  asserts  tljat  '  when  hogs  are  fatted  entire^ 
ly  on  acorns,  chestnuts,  and  other  productions  of  the  forest, 
the  flesh  will  eat  much  better  and  sweeter  than  if  flattened  in 
a  sty.  Seme  indeed  say  their  fat  will  not  be  so  solid,  nor  so 
profitable,  and  therefore  they  commonly  shut  them  up  a  week 
or  ten  days,  and  feed  them  with  dry  peas  ;  but  this  is  a  mis- 
take, experience  hcimig  choion  that  hogs  fatted  with  acorns 
only  have  their  fat  as  solid  as  those  fatted  with  peas.''  If  this 
be  correct,  the  value  of  acorns  as  food  for  sw  ine  is  not  gene- 
rally known  in  those  parts  of  the  United  States  with  which 
we  have  been  acquainted.  We  have  seen  places  in  the 
neighborhood  of  farmers'  dwellings  where  bushels  might  be 
had  for  stooping,  but  were  as  much  neglected  as  if  they  had 
been  pebble  stones.  The  acorns  recommended  are,  we  be- 
lieve, those  of  the  white  oak;  and  whether  the  acorns  of  the 
numerous  other  kinds  of  oak  are  of  any  value  as  food  for 
swine  Ave  cannot  say.  It  might  be  well  to  try  them,  not  only 
raw,  but  boiled  or  steamed,  and  likewise  ground  into  meal, 
and  given  with,  as  well  as  without  other  mixtures.  We  sus- 
pect that  acorns  alone  would  prove  astringent,  and  if  so,  they 
might  be  qualified  with  a  trough  full  of  raw  potatoes. 

Carrots,  according  to  Mr.  Young,  are  better  than  potatoes, 
and  some  other  writers  assure  us  that  parsnips  are  better 
than  either  for  feeding  hogs.  An  English  writer  says,  '  They 
fatten  all  their  pork  in  the  island  of  Jersey  with  parsnips. 
They  are  much  more  saccharine  than  carrots,  and  it  is  well 
known  that  nothing  fattens  a  hog  faster  or  makes  finer  pork 
than  the  sugar-cane:'  and  we  are  told  that  parsnips  suffered 
to  remain  in  the  ground  where  they  grew  through  the 
winter,  and  drawn  in  the  spring  and  boiled  tops  and  bot- 
toms, made  most  excellent  food  for  swine  when  other  food 
was  scarce. 

Acid  or  fermented  food  for  swine  has  been  highly  recom- 
mended. Mr.  Arthur  Young,  whose  authority  amongst  hus- 
bandmen is  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  pope  v.ith  Roman 
Catholics,  says,  '  that  the  most  profitable  method  of  convert- 
ing corn  of  any  kind  into  food  for  hogs  is  to  grind  it  into 
meal,  and  mix  this  with  water  in  cisterns,  in  the  proportion 
of  five  bushels  of  meal  to  one  hundred  gallons  water ;  stir- 
ring it  well  several  times  a  doy  for  three  weeks  in  cold 
weather,  or  a  fortnight  in  a  warmer  season,  by  which  it  will 
have  ferni3nted  well  and  become  acid,  till  which  it  is  not. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  169 

ready  to  give.  The  mixture  should  always  be  stirred  im- 
mediately before  feeding,  and  two  or  three  cisterns  should 
be  kept  fermenting  in  succession,  that  no  necessity  may  oc- 
cur of  giving  it  not  duly  prepared.'  Judge  Peters,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, whose  authority  is,  in  our  opinion,  not  inferior  to 
that  of  any  man  who  ever  wrote  on  agricultural  topics,  says, 
in  substance,  that  '  so'ir  food  is  most  grateful  and  alimentary 
to  swine.  One  gallon  of  sour  wash  goes  farther  than  two 
of  sweet.'     But 

An  English  \/ork  entitled  '  Farmer's  Calendar,'  (author's 
name  not  given,)  declares  that  '  much  has  been  said,  and  lit- 
tle understood,  about  purposely  souring  food  for  hogs.  It  is 
not  that  acidity  can  possibly  tend  to  pinguefaction,  [making 
fat,]  but  it  is  found  the  pigs  will  readily  fatten  upon  acid,  or 
rather  acescent  food,  a  sweetish  taste  and  glutinous  quality 
succeeding  fermentation ;  and  that  they  will  do  so  still  more 
readily  upon  such  as  has  never  reached  the  acid  state^  I  kyiow 
and  have  seen  in  hundreds  of  instances.  Is  a  proof  wanted  ? 
How  much  more  readily  do  the  country  hogs  feed  upon 
sweet  and  unfermented  food,  than  those  of  the  starch-house 
upon  the  fermented  and  subacid  wash,  however  rich.  I 
say  subacid,  for  did  not  starch-makers  run  off  a  great  part 
of  that  which  is  really  sour,  they  would  kill  instead  of  fatten 
their  hogs.'  In  order  to  reconcile  these  writers  it  will  only 
be  necessary  to  advert  to  the  different  stages  of  ordinary 
fermentation,  and  the  products  of  each  stage.  The  first 
stage  of  fermentation  produces  sugar,  and  is  called  the  sac- 
charine fermentation.  The  second  stage  develops  alcohol, 
or  spirit  of  wine,  and  is  called  the  vinous  fermentation. 
The  third  stage  produces  vinegar,  and  is  called  the  acid  fermen- 
tation ;  and  the  fourth  and  last  stage  converts  the  matter 
fermenting  into  a  substance  which  is  not  only  offensive,  but 
poisonous,  and  is  called  the  putrid  fermentation.  Thus  if 
you  soak  wheat  or  other  farinaceous  substance  in  water  of  a 
proper  temperature  it  will  first  become  sweet,  and  begin  to 
sprout  or  vegetate ;  it  will  next  afford  spirit  or  alcohol ;  con- 
tinue the  process,  th3  wash  turns  sour,  at  first  slightly,  and 
then  more  strongly  acid ;  and  at  last  the  whole  becomes  pu- 
trid. It  probably  contains  most  nourishment  when  it  is 
sweetest,  but  it  is  valuable  till  very  sour,  when  it  is  worth 
little  or  nothing;  and  when  the  putrid  fermentation  has 
commenced  it  is  worse  than  nothing,  as  food  for  any  animal. 
The  farmer  then  should  give  his  wash  to  his  pigs  while  it  is 
yet  sweet,  or  but  beginning  to  turn  sour. 
15 


170  THE    COMPLETE  FARMER 

Fattening  Pigs  on  Coal.  Cunningham,  in  his  *  Tioo  Years 
in  Neio  South  Wales,'  relates,  '  I  had  often  heard  it  said 
among  sailors  that  pigs  would  fatten  on  coals,  and  although 
I  had  observed  them  very  fond  of  munching  up  the  coals  and 
cinders  that  came  in  their  way,  still  I  conceived  they  might 
relish  them  more  as  a  condiment  or  medicine  than  as  food, 
till  I  was  assured  by  a  worthy  friend  of  mine,  long  in  com- 
mand of  a  ship,  that  he  once  knew  of  a  pig  being  lost  for 
several  weeks  in  a  vessel  he  commanded,  and  it  was  at  last 
found  to  have  tumbled  into  the  coal-hole,  and  there  lived  all 
that  period  without  a  single  morsel  of  any  thing  to  feed  upon 
but  coals :  on  being  dragged  out,  it  was  found  as  plump  and 
fat  as  if  it  had  been  feasting  on  the  most  nutritious  food. 
Another  friend  told  me  of  a  similar  case,  which  came  under 
his  observation  ;  and  although  these  may  be  solitary  instan- 
ces, yet  they  serve  at  least  to  show  the  wonderful  facility 
which  the  stomachs  of  certain  animals  possess  of  adapting 
their  digestive  powers  to  such  an  extraordinary  species  of 
food,  and  extracting  wholesome  nourishment  therefrom. 
When  we  consider  coal,  however,  to  be  a  vegetable  produc- 
tion, containing  the  constituent  principles  of  fat,  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  our  surprise  will  decrease.' 

An  Ohio  farmer  also,  in  a  southern  paper,  recommends 
coals  as  useful  in  fattening  hogs.  After  giving  his  hogs  a 
small  quantity  daily,  say  two  pieces  to  each,  about  the  size 
of  a  hen's  egg,  they  discontinued  rooting,  were  more  quiet, 
and  appeared  to  fatten  faster.  He  omitted  the  coal  a  few 
days,  and  they  commenced  rooting ;  he  gave  it  again,  and 
they  ceased  to  root.  He  supposed  that  the  coal  corrects  the 
morbid  fluid  in  the  stomach,  which  incites  them  to  root  deep 
in  search  of  fresh  earth. 

The  following  mixture  for  fattening  swine  has  been  re- 
commended : 

Wash  potatoes  clean,  boil  and  mash  while  hot,  mix  in  at 
the  same  time  oats  and  pea  meal.  Put  the  mixture  into  a 
large  tub,  which  must  stand  till  it  becomes  sour,  but  not 
putrid.  Keep  a  quantity  of  this  on  hand,  always  fermenting, 
and  give  it  to  your  hogs  as  often  as  they  will  eat. 

Apples  have  been  much  recommended  as  food  for  swine. 
They  are  good  raw,  but  better  if  boiled  and  mixed  with 
meal.  A  writer  for  the  Brattleborough  Reporter  observes, 
'  I  have  tested  by  ten  years'  experience  the  value  of  apples 
as  food  for  animals.  I  keep  five  or  six  hogs  in  my  orchard, 
upon  nothing  but  apples  and  a  little  swill ;  and  have  uni- 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  171 

formly  found  them  to  grow  and  gain  flesh  faster  than  hogs 
fed  upon  any  thing  else  but  grain.  On  the  first  ot  Novem- 
ber, they  are  very  decent  pork ;  after  which  I  feed  them 
about  six  weeks  on  grain  before  I  kill  them ;  and  I  believe  I 
have  as  fat  hogs  and  as  good  pork  as  my  neighbors,  who 
give  to  their  hogs  double  the  quantity  of  grain  that  I  do  to 
mine.' 

Sows  devouring  their  Offspring.  It  is  not  unfrequently 
the  case  that  sows  destroy  their  offspring.  In  the  New 
England  Farmer,  vol.  v.  p.  214,  is  a  communication  from  the 
Hon.  0.  Fiske,  in  which  he  observes,  '  In  most  cases  where 
I  have  inquired  into  the  fact,  whether  in  old  or  young  breed- 
ers, I  have  ascertained  that  they  have  been  disturbed  in  some 
of  their  essential  habits,  either  having  been  removed  from 
their  companions,  their  range  restricted,  or  from  being  re- 
moved from  one  pen  to  another.  All  these  changes,  how- 
ever, may  be  effected  with  safety,  by  allowing  them  sufficient 
time  to  become  accustomed  to  them,  four  or  five  weeks  at 
least.  I  have  known  sows  do  well  w^ith  a  second  litter  after 
having  destroyed  a  first  under  one  of  the  above  excitements. 
Hence  it  would  be  unwise  to  condemn  to  death  one  which 
hid  fair  otherwise  to  be  a  valuable  breeder,  even  for  this 
1..0 -t  unnatural  crime. 

Another  writer,  with  the  signature  'D.'  directs  to  'separate 
the  sow  from  the  rest  of  the  swine  six  or  eight  weeks  before 
her  bringing  forth,  so  that  she  may  become  accustomed  to 
her  pen.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  to  have  her  pen 
kept  dry  and  well  littered;  always  give  them  litter  enough 
so  as  not  to  be  obliged  to  give  any  for  six  days  before  the 
time,  for  nothing  disturbs  a  sow  more  than  an  abundance  of 
litter,  and  which  in  my  opinion  has  a  great  tendency  to  in- 
duce her  to  destroy  her  young.  If  the  sow  is  with  the  other 
swine  till  within  a  few  days  of  her  bringing  forth,  and  then 
separated,  she  will  not  get  accustomed  to  her  pen,  and  being 
disturbed,  she  will  be  pretty  sure  to  destroy  her  pigs. 

'  Raw  salt  pork,  cut  in  small  pieces,  and  given,  will  pre- 
vent them  from  eating  their  pigs.  I  have  seen  it  given  after 
they  had  ate  two  or  three  of  their  litter,  with  good  success. 
But  to  prevent  any  mischief  it  should  be  kept  by  them  at 
this  time."^  A  writer  for  the  same  paper,  vol.  xi.  p.  298, 
observes,  '  I  have  been  careful  for  about  a  week  before  my 
sows  were  about  to  farrow,  to  give  them  some  butcher's  re- 

*  N.  E.  Farmer,  vol.  xi.  p.  297. 


172  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

fuse  meat,  which  does  not  cost  much ;  if  easy  to  be  procured 
give  them  a  plenty,  and  I  will  venture  to  say  that  they  will 
not  eat  their  pigs.' 

Another,  in  the  same  volume,  p.  305,  observes,  '  When  the 
period  of  yeaning  is  near  I  take  the  sow  apart  and  give  her 
free  access  to  a  loarm  bed-room  of  ample  dimensions  in  my 
barn,  with  a  dry  plank  floor,  where  the  shingled  walls  pre- 
vent the  entrance  of  cold,  rain,  or  Avind,  with  just  enough 
straw  to  amuse  her  "  moments  of  anxiety,"  but  not  enough  to 
allow  a  single  pig  to  cover  his  head  and  lose  his  road  to  the 
fountain  of  comfort.'  A  writer  with  the  signature  '  Berk- 
shire,' in  the  same  volume,  p.  321,  states  as  his  opinion  that  the 
evil  is  caused  by  confining  the  sow  in  a  light  pen  from  the 
ground,  and  the  want  of  a  suitable  supply  of  potatoes,  turnips, 
ruta  baga,  &c.,  in  addition  to  their  other  food.  '  Whaler,'' 
in  the  same  paper,  p.  338,  who  has  raised  fine  pigs  on  board 
of  a  whale  ship,  at  sea,  without  grass  or  roots,  believed  ani- 
mal food  the  specific  remedy  for  the  unnatural  inclination  of 
sows  to  devour  their  offspring.  And  '  A  Subscriber'  '  is  san- 
guine in  the  opinion  that  if  sows  are  so  placed  as  to  be  able 
to  come  to  the  ground  a  few  days  before  pigging,  no  disap- 
pointment would  ever  happen  in  the  loss  of  pigs.  It  is  not 
convenient  to  let  them  ramble  at  large ;  a  temporary  pen  up- 
on ground  is  equally  good.' 

Swine  should  not  be  kept  in  close  and  filthy  pens.  Though 
they  wallow  in  mire,  their  object  is  coolness,  not  nastiness, 
and  they  thrive  faster  and  enjoy  better  health  w^hen  allowed 
clean  and  dry  lodgings  than  when  they  are  not  thus  accom- 
modated. The  late  judge  Peters,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  an 
article  entitled  '  Notices  for  a  Young  Farmer,''  &;c.,  observed, 
that  '  there  is  no  greater  mistake  than  that  of  gorging  swine, 
when  first  penned  for  fattening.  They  should,  on  the  contra- 
ry, be  moderately  and  frequently  fed,  so  that  they  be  kept 
full,  but  do  not  loathe  or  reject  their  food,  and  in  the  end 
contract  fevers  and  dangerous  maladies,  originating  in  a  hot 
and  corrupted  mass  of  blood.  In  airy  and  roomy,  yet  mode- 
rately warm  pens,  paved  and  boarded,  and  often  cleaned, 
they  are  healthy  and  thriving.  They  show  a  disposition  to 
be  cleanly,  however  otherwise  it  is  supposed,  and  always 
leave  their  excrementitious  matter  in  a  part  of  the  pen  dis- 
tinct from  that  in  which  they  lie  down.  No  animal  will 
thrive  unless  it  be  kept  clean.' 

The  same  writer  asserted  in  substance,  that  fatting  hogs 
should   always  be   supplied  with  dry  rotten  wood,  which 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  173 

should  be  kept  in  their  pens,  for  the  animals  to  eat  as  their 
appetites  or  instincts  may  direct.  It  has  been  supposed, 
likewise,  that  swine  thrive  the  better  when  they  can  obtain 
fresh  earth,  which  they  are  often  observed  to  swallow  with 
gi'eediness.  Charcoal,  it  is  said  by  some,  will  answer  as 
good,  if  not  a  more  valuable  purpose ;  and  that  if  swine  can 
obtain  charcoal,  they  will  not  only  greedily  devour  a  portion 
of  that  substance,  but  will  be  but  little  inclined  to  rooting, 
and  remain  quiet  in  their  pens. 

It  is  an  object  of  much  consequence  to  obtain  the  best 
breed  of  swine,  not  only  as  regards  the  saving  of  food,  but 
producing  the  best  qualities  of  flesh.  The  Hon.  Oliver  Fiske, 
of  Worcester,  as  before  observed,  has  rendered  great  service 
to  the  community  by  introducing  to  the  notice  of  farmers  in 
this  country  a  variety  of  this  animal  called  the  Bedford 
Breed.  This  breed  has  been  highly  recommended  by  many 
who  have  ascertained  their  merits  by  trial.  His  excellency 
Levi  Lincoln,  late  governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  president 
of  the  Worcester  Agricultural  society,  has  given  his  opinion 
of  this  variety,  in  a  letter,  from  which  the  following  are 
extracts  : 

'  I  have  great  pleasure  in  voluntarily  offering  myself  as 
your  compurgator  in  the  representations  with  which  you 
have  recently  favored  the  public,  of  the  Bedford  breed  of 
swine.  The  care  and  perseverance  which  have  marked  your 
attention  to  the  prospects  and  value  of  these  animals,  and 
the  success  which  has  followed  your  exertions  to  introduce 
them  to  the  favor  of  practical  farmers,  require,  at  least,  an 
acknowledgment  of  obligation  from  all  those  who  have  been 
particularly  benefited  by  your  liberality,  and  from  no  one 
more  than  from  myself.  This  breed  of  swine  has  taken  the 
place  of  a  long-legged,  long-nosed,  flat-sided,  thriftless  race, 
called  by  some  the  Irish  breed,  by  others  the  Russian,  which 
would  barely  pay  by  their  weight  for  ordinary  keeping,  and 
never  for  one-half  the  expense  of  fattening,  if,  indeed,  grain 
would  make  them  fat.' 

'  I  had  three  pigs  butchered  from  the  same  litter,  precisely 
seven  and  a  half  months  old.  Their  weights,  when  dressed, 
were  two  hundred  and  thirty,  two  hundred  thirty-five,  and 
two  hundred  and  thirty-eight  and  a  half  pounds.  One  sold 
in  Boston  for  six  and  one -fourth  cents  per  pound  ;  the  others 
were  put  up  here  for  family  use.  The  expense  of  keeping 
and  fattening  these  pigs,  I  am  satisfied,  was  less  than  with 
any  other  breed  I  ever  raised,  and  the  proportion  of  bone  and 
15=^ 


174  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

offal  to  the  valuable  parts  was  surprisingly  small.  I  have 
fifteen  more  on  my  farm,  part  designed  for  the  market  in  the 
spring,  and  part  to  be  kept  over  as  store  swine,  and  their  ap- 
pearance will  furnish  ocular  satisfaction  of  the  propriety  of 
all  which  has  been  said  in  favor  of  the  breed.' 

The  above  is  followed  by  a  communication  from  the  Hon. 
0.  Fiske,  in  which  he  says :  '  I  have  obtained  the  following 
account  of  the  introduction  of  this  breed  of  swine  from  the 
Hon.  T.  Pickering.  He  saw  them  first  on  a  farm  of  general 
Ridgely,  about  fourteen  miles  from  Philadelphia.  General 
Ridgely  informed  him  that  they  were  brought  to  this 
country  as  a  present  to  general  Washington,  from  the  duke 
of  Bedford,  who  committed  them  to  the  care  of  an  English 
farmer  by  the  name  of  Parkinson.  This  man  took  a  farm  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Baltimore  ;  but  instead  of  sending  the 
swine  to  general  Washington,  Parkinson  sold  them.  Gene- 
ral Ridgely  esteemed  them  very  highly,  and  sent  colonel 
Pickering  a  pair  of  them,  in  a  vessel  bound  to  Salem. 

Mr.  John  Reed,  of  Roxbury,  obtained  the  breed  from  colo- 
nel Pickering's  stock  ;  from  Mr.  Reed  I  obtained  the  offspring 
from  separate  litters,  and  transferred  them  to  Worcester, 
where,  by  avoiding  the  breeding  directly  i7i  and  i?i,  I  have 
preserved  them  without  degenerating.  The  race  is  most 
perfect  and  valuable  when  unadulterated,  but  affords  a  most 
valuable  improvement  to  our  native  breed  when  judiciously 
crossed.' 

Captain  John  Mackay,  of  Boston,  has  exhibited  at  Brigh- 
ton a  peculiar  and  excellent  breed  of  swine,  which  have  re- 
peatedly received  premiums  from  the  Massachusetts  Agxi' 
cultural  society. 


MANURES.  No  soil  will  always  prove  productive 
without  manure.  Though  naturally  fertile,  if  some  equiva- 
lent for  its  produce  is  not  returned  to  it ;  if  it  is  always 
yielding  and  never  receiving,  it  must,  at  length,  become 
barren. 

Particular  spots,  like  Egypt,  and  other  alluvial  or  inter- 
val lands,  which  are  annually  overflowed,  derive  manure 
from  the  bountiful  hand  of  nature,  and  cannot  be  rendered 
barren  by  bad  husbandry  or  continual  cropping.  Some 
soils,  likewise,  are  not  easily  exhausted,  and  are  easily  re- 
cruited, in  consequence  of  being  composed  of  materials  which 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


175 


attract  and  retain  the  food  of  plants  from  air  and  water,  as 
well  as  afford  a  proper  medium  to  prepare  and  communicate 
the  principle  of  fertility. 

Every  species  of  matter  capable  of  promoting  the  growth 
of  vegetables  may  be  considered  as  manure.  Vegetables  are 
composed  of  certain  substances  called  by  chemists  oxygen, 
[formerly  called  vital  air]  hydrogen,  [inflammable  air]  car- 
bon, [coaly  matter]  and  nitrogen,  or  azote,  one  of  the  con- 
stituent parts  of  the  atmosphere.  The  substances  employed 
as  manure  should  be  composed  of  all  or  some  of  these  ele- 
ments. 

Vegetable  and  animal  substances,  deposited  in  the  soil,  are 
consumed  during  the  process  of  vegetation  ;  being  mostly 
absorbed  by  the  roots  of  plants,  combined  with  water.  These 
substances  compose  what  is  called  the  food  of  plants.  This 
food  is  mostly  taken  in  by  the  roots,  which  are  analogous  to 
the  mouths  of  animals,  but  some  portion  of  the  nourishment 
of  vegetables  is  also  derived  from  the  atmosphere,  imbibed 
by  the  leaves  and  bark.  Thus  the  carcasses  of  lambs  and 
other  small  animals  are  sometimes  hung  on  the  limbs  of  fruit- 
trees  to  promote  their  growth,  and  cause  them  to  bear  abun- 
dantly, and  thus  produce  some  effect ;  but  the  practice  is 
slovenly  and  wasteful,  as  the  air  is  contaminated,  and  the 
carcass  buried  near  the  roots  would  be  much  more  efficient 
as  manure. 

A  controversy  has  existed  relative  to  the  degree  of  fer- 
mentation which  manure  should  undergo  before  it  is  applied 
to  the  soil.  Some  agriculturists  contend  that  long,  fresh,  or 
unfermented  manure  is  to  be  preferred.  Others  assert  that 
stable  and  barn-yard  manure  never  should  be  spread  in  the 
field  till  the  fibrous  texture  of  the  vegetable  matter  is  entire- 
ly broken  down,  and  it  becomes  perfectly  cold,  and  so  soft  as 
to  be  easily  cut  with  a  spade. 

Sir  Humphrey  Davy  observes,  '  If  the  pure  dung  of  cattle 
is  to  be  used  as  manure,  there  seems  no  reason  why  it  should 
be  made  to  ferment,  except  in  the  soil;  or  if  suffered  to  fer- 
ment it  should  be  only  in  a  very  slight  degree.  The  grass 
in  the  neighborhood  of  recently  voided  dung  is  always  coarse 
and  dark  green ;  some  persons  have  attributed  this  to  a  nox- 
ious quality  in  unfermented  dung ;  but  it  seems  to  be  rather 
the  result  of  an  excess  of  food  furnished  to  the  plants. 

'  During  the  violent  fermentation  which  is  necessary  for 
reducing  farm-yard  manure  to  the  state  of  what  is  called 
short  muck^  not  only  a  large  quantity  of  fluid,  but  likewise  of 


176  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

gaseous  matter,  is  lost ;  so  much  so  that  the  dung  is  reduced 
one-half  or  two-thirds  in  weight  ;  and  the  principal  elastic 
matter  disengaged,  in  carbonic  acid,  and  some  ammonia; 
and  both  of  these,  if  retained  by  the  moisture  of  the  soil,  are 
capable  of  becoming  useful  nourishment  of  plants. 

'  It  is  usual  to  carry  straw  that  can  be  employed  for  no 
other  purpose  to  the  dunghill  to  ferment  and  decompose  ; 
but  it  is  worth  an  experiment,  whether  it  may  not  be  more 
economically  applied  when  chopped  small  by  a  proper  ma- 
chine, and  kept  dry  till  it  is  ploughed  in  for  the  use  of  the 
crop.  In  this  case,  though  it  would  decompose  much  more 
slowly  and  produce  less  effect  at  first,  yet  its  influence  would 
be  more  lasting.' 

Eobert  Smith,  Esq.,  president  of  the  Maryland  Agricul- 
tural society,  in  an  address  to  that  society,  observed,  '  With 
respect  to  stable  dung,  I  shall  for  the  present  content  my- 
self by  barely  suggesting,  that  my  experience  strongly  in- 
clines me  to  the  opinion  that,  however  long,  it  ought  to  be 
ploughed  into  the  ground  without  any  previous  stirring,  and 
as  soon  as  practicable  after  it  has  been  taken  from  the  farm- 
yard.' 

We  believe  that  the  question  relative  to  long  and  to  short 
manure  must  depend  on  circumstances.  In  certain  soils,  and 
for  certain  crops,  long  manure  which  has  undergone  but  a 
slight  fermentation  is  to  be  preferred.  But  if  used  for  wheat, 
and  other  kinds  of  grain,  and  in  all  crops  which  cannot  con- 
veniently be  hoed  or  weeded,  or,  probably,  when  applied  to 
soils  containing  acids  or  some  substances  which  may  prevent 
fermentation  and  retard  the  progress  of  putrescence  and  dis- 
solution, it  must  be  well  rotted. 

Rotting  manure,  however,  in  a  barn-yard,  or  in  any  situa- 
tion in  which  its  volatile  and  liquid  products  escape  into  the 
atmosphere,  or  soak  into  soil  not  designed  to  support  vege- 
tation, is  very  slovenly  and  wasteful,  and  always  to  be  a\oid- 
ed  if  possible.  The  effluvia  or  gas  which  is  suffered  to  es- 
cape from  fermenting  manure  is  not  only  almost  altogether 
lost  to  useful  vegetation,  but,  what  is  still  worse,  fills  the  at- 
mosphere with  particles  injurious  to  health,  and  often  de- 
structive to  life.  The  evaporations  from  a  manure  yard 
rob  the  farmer  of  a  part  of  his  substance,  starve  his  crops, 
and  it  is  well  if  they  do  not,  moreover,  poison  him  and  his 
family  by  their  contaminating  influence.  Some  farmers' 
barn-yards,  hogpens,  and  other  receptacles  of  manure,  are 
very  offensive,  and  if  they  do  not  generate  typhus  fever  in 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  177 

its  worst  form,  which  we  fear  is  frequently  the  case,  they  at 
least  cause  a  degree  of  languor  and  debility,  which  embit- 
ters existence,  and  in  a  great  measure  disquali.Hes  for  any 
useful  purposes  of  life.  It  is  a  fact  that  those  exhalations  so 
injurious  to  animal  life  are  the  essence  of  vegetable  life,  and 
the  volatile  substances  which  offend  our  senses  mid  inj  ire 
our  health,  if  arrested  in  their  transit  by  the  hand  of  skilful 
industry,  may  be  so  modified  in  the  great  laboratory  of  na- 
ture as  to  greet  us  in  the  fragrance  of  a  flower,  regale  us  in 
the  plum  or  nectarine,  or  furnish  the  stamina  of  life  in  sub- 
stantial viands  from  the  field  and  the  stall  of  the  cultivator. 

If  we  are  correct  in  the  foregoing  an  important  axiom 
may  be  adduced,  viz.  :  No  putrefactive  process  oi'gkt  to  be 
suffered  to  proceed  on  a  farmer''s  premises,  ivithout  ^lic  adopt- 
ing some  mode  to  save,  as  far  as  possible,  the  gaseous  products 
of  such  putrescence.  These  gaseous  products  constitute  im- 
portant elements  of  vegetable  food,  and  a  farmer  may  as 
well  suffer  his  cattle  to  stray  from  his  stall,  or  his  swine 
from  his  sty,  without  a  possibility  of  reclaiming  them,  as 
permit  the  principles  of  fertility  expelled  by  fermentation  or 
putrefaction  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere  for  the  purpose 
of  poisoning  the  air,  instead  of  feeding  the  plants.  It  is 
very  easy  to  arrest  these  particles.  A  quantity  cf  earth 
thrown  over  the  matter  in  which  the  fermentation  is  going 
on  will  check  its  violence  and  arrest  its  gaseous  products, 
which  will  be  imbibed  by  the  soil,  and  afterwards  yielded  to 
plants  in  such  proportion  as  the  v/ants  of  vegetation  may 
require. 

'  Fermentation,  that  destroyer  of  all  organic  conformation, 
is  not  to  be  feared  by  the  farmer,  if  it  be  conducted  and  car- 
ried on  in  the  presence  of  earth,  which  fixes  and  secures  the 
gases  as  fast  as  they  are  liberated.  Even  the  degree  of  the 
process  i^  a  matter  of  less  consequence  ;  because  if  the  ele- 
mentary principles  are  in  keeping,  and  reserved  for  future 
usefulness,  it  is  immaterial  whether  this  has  happened  by  a 
new  absorption,  or  by  still  holding  their  original  and  un- 
changed form.  In  his  composite  hill,  [compost  heap]  the 
whole  animal  or  vegetable  structure  may  be  dissolved,  and 
leave  behind  no  trace  of  existence,  without  the  least  waste 
of  the  principles  of  fertility  ;  because  the  ingredients  super- 
added to  the  dung  have  become  surcharged  with  them,  or,  to 
speak  philosophically,  fully  saturated.  We  may  go  farther 
and  state  that  complete  decomposition  is  desirable  in  this 
case,  which  is  so  much  to  be  avoided  in  the  farm-yard ;  be- 


178  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

cause  putrescent  matter  can  only  beconne  vegetable  food  by- 
its  resolution  into  primary  parts,  and  if  this  be  effected  by 
any  preparatory  step,  the  young  crop  receives  the  full  and 
instantaneous  benefit.  The  compost  manure  is  carried  to 
the  field  ready  to  give  out  its  richness  on  the  very  first  call, 
and  to  supply  the  nascent  radicle  [young  root]  with  a  copi- 
ous share  of  nourishment. 

'  The  putrefactive  process  may  be  carried  on  in  the  pre- 
sence of  pure  earth  only,  or  of  earth  intermingled  with  fibrous 
roots,  or  lastly  in  the  presence  of  peat,  which  is  an  assem- 
blage of  inert  vegetable  matter,  and  compost  dunghills  may 
be  formed  according  to  this  threefold  method. 

'  The  simplest  of  all  composts  is  a  mixture  of  barn-yard 
dung  and  surface  mould  taken  fr-^m  a  field  under  regular 
culture.  The  proportions  between  the  ingredients  are  fixed 
by  no  determinate  laws,  and  consequently  great  liberty  is 
allowable  to  the  operator.  I  have  known  some  instances 
where  two  cart-loads  of  dung  Avere  used  for  one  of  earth ; 
Others  where  they  were  blended  in  equal  quantities ;  and  it 
"ig  not  unfrequent  to  compound  two  of  earth  with  one  of  dung. 
In  fact  such  is  the  uncertainty  in  the  composition,  that  al- 
most every  farmer  adopts  one  peculiar  to  himself,  and  with 
equal  success.  No  man  need  therefore  follow  implicitly  the 
rules  which  have  been  laid  down  in  this  department  of  rural 
economy,  but  may  vary  and  multiply  his  experiments,  ac- 
cording to  the  suggestions  of  fancy  or  the  dictates  of  con- 
venience. If  we  slightly  glance  at  the  principle,  we  shall 
see  the  cause  of  this  seemingly  endless  variety  in  the  com- 
binations of  the  ingredients.  The  only  use  of  intermixing 
the  soil  \v:th  the  dung  is  to  imbibe  the  gaseous  elements  of 
vegetable  life,  and  hinder  their  dissipation.  If  there  be  much 
soil,  these  elements  will  be  diffused  through  it  with  loss  den- 
sity and  compression  ;  if  little,  it  will  be  more  al/undantly 
saturated  and  enriched  with  the  nutritive  vapors.  The  only 
error  into  which  the  farmer  can  run  is  to  supply  such  an  in- 
considerable quantity  of  soil  as  will  be  incapable  of  im- 
bibing the  elastic  and  volatile  particles,  and  thus  by  his  own 
mismanagement  occasion  a  waste  of  the  vegetable  aliment. 
One  cart-load  of  soil  to  two  of  stable  dung  is  the  least  pro- 
portion which  he  should  ever  attempt  to  combine,  and  per- 
haps if  the  two  were  mixed  equally,  he  would  be  compensa- 
ted for  the  additional  labor  and  expense. 

'  Simple  earth,  although  excellent  for  bottoming  and 
strewing  over  the  pit  dug  near  the  barn,  is  of  all  materials 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  179 

the  most  unprofitable  in  compost  dunghills.  A  matted  sward, 
thickly  entangled  with  roots,  or  mud  dragged  from  the  bot- 
tom of  bogs  or  ditches,  and  replete  with  aquatic  plants,  are 
clearly  preferable  on  this  account,  that,  besides  bringing  earth 
to  the  composition,  they  supply  a  large  proportion  of  vege- 
table matter.  Whenever  the  soil  must  be  carted  to  the  heap 
it  is  better  to  lay  out  the  expense  in  transporting  these  en- 
riching materials;  because  they  will  not  only  equally  ab- 
sorb and  retain  the  evaporating  gases,  but  greatly  augment 
the  quantity  of  manure. '"^ 

The  path  proper  for  a  farmer  to  pursue  in  order  to  make 
the  most  of  his  manure,  and  preserve  his  own  health  and 
that  of  his  family,  is  as  plain  as  a  turnpike.  Whenever  pu- 
trid fermentation  is  going  on  in  any  part  of  his  premises,  and 
consuming  his  substance  by  a  slow  but  wasteful  combustion, 
let  him  apply  earth,  peat,  or  some  other  earthy  substance  in 
quantities  sufficient  to  attract,  imbibe,  and  retain  all  the 
effluvia.  Health,  profit,  and  cleanliness  equally  require  such 
a  proceeding.  We  shall  say  a  word  or'^two  on  the  latter 
topic.  If  a  man  were  to  swallow  daily  a  quantity  of  filthy 
matter,  or  to  eat  his  food  impregnated  with  vapors  from  a 
manure  heap,  or  from  some  other  putrefying  and  ofTensivc 
substance,  when  he  might  by  a  little  exertion  avoid  such 
nauseous  viands,  and  substitute  something  nourishing,  palat- 
able, pure,  and  wholesome,  we  should  esteem  him  no  better 
than  a  Hottentot.  But  a  man  may  almost  as  well  take  filth 
into  his  stomach,  as  filthy  effluvia  into  his  lungs;  he  may 
about  as  well  dine  with  a  crow  or  a  buzzard  as  sup  with  a 
toad  '  on  the  vapor  of  a  dunghill.' 

The  farmer  who  arrests  the  rank  vapors  which  emanate 
from  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  and  instead  of 
permitting  them  to  pass  into  and  contaminate  the  air  he 
breathes,  treasures  up  the  invisible  particles  with  which  they 
are  laden,  and  applies  them  to  feed  useful  vegetables,  causes 
the  atmosphere  to  be  healthy,  and  his  plants  to  be  thrifty  by 
the  same  means. 

The  celebrated  lord  Erskine,  in  a  speech  delivered  at  one 
of  the  annual  sheep  shearings  at  Holkham,  in  England,  made 
the  following  remarks  on  this  subject : 

'  If  we  consider  the  subject  of  manure,  we  shall  perceive 
one  of  the  most  striking  beauties  and  benefits  of  divine  or- 
dination, and  of  that  wisdom  with  which  we   are  blessed  a 

Letters  of  Agricola,  by  John  Young,  Esq. 


180  THE    COMPLETE    FAKMER 

thousand  ways  without  knowing  it.  This  very  substance, 
had  ii  been  useless,  must  have  accumulated  in  heaps,  intoler- 
ably n  )if ome  and  perpetually  pestilential  ;  but  by  the  bless- 
ing of  Providence,  it  is  every  man's  interest  to  remove  these 
otherwise  increasing  mountains  of  fUth,  and  by  decomposi- 
tion, in  various  ways,  in  a  great  measure  concealed  from  us,  it 
gives  increase  to  our  fields,  and  adds  to  our  means  of  indus- 
try, and  the  reward  of  the  husbandman.' 

Those  who  cultivate  the  grouud  do  not  always  act  the 
provident  part  supposed  by  lord  Erskine,  in  the  sentence 
above  quoted.  On  the  contrary,  farmers  too  often  suffer  ma- 
nure to  acci.mulate  and  waste  in  heaps,  generating  effluvia 
'  intolerably  noisome  and  perpetually  pestilential,'  without 
fear  of  fexer  or  famine,  both  of  which  are  courted  by  such 
conduct.  Not  only  dung  is  too  often  allowed  to  waste  its 
richness  on  the  tainted  air,  but  straw  and  other  litter  is  suf- 
fered to  grow  mouldy  and  consume  by  what  is  sometimes 
called  the  Q;:yrot,  both  of  which  might  be  prevented,  or  their 
bad  effects  obviated,  by  covering  or  mixing  them  with  a  suita- 
ble quantity  of  earth.  Besides,  dead  animals,  contents  of 
privnes.  the  emptyings  of  sinks,  spoiled  provisions,  the  refuse 
of  the  dairy,  the  pantry,  and  the  cellar,  are  allowed  to  min- 
gle their  odours  in  nauseating  and  deleterious  profusion. 
Sometimes  the  highway  is  rendered  almost  impassable  in 
consequence  of  a  dead  horse,  sheep,  dog,  or  cat  undergoing 
the  process  of  decomposition  in  a  situation  correctly  calcu- 
lated to  annoy  travelers.  Some  farmers  hang  dead  lambs, 
cats,  dogs,  &c.,  in  the  forks  of  apple-trees,  or  throw  them  on 
hovels  or  stumps,  at  some  elevation  from  the  ground,  to  give 
the  pestilential  emanations  a  chance  to  dirfuse  themselves, 
without  coming  in  contact  with  the  earth,  which  might  con- 
vert them  from  poison  to  men  and  animals  into  food  for 
plants.  If,  however,  such  animal  remains  are  deposited  in 
a  barn-yard  or  manure  heap,  they  are  too  often  suffered  to 
lie  and  rot  on  the  surface,  offending  the  senses,  and  injuring 
the  health  of  a  whole  village.  Practices  of  this  kind  are 
well  reproved  by  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  who  says,  '  Horses, 
dogs,  sheep,  deer,  and  other  quadrupeds  that  have  died  acci- 
dentally or  of  diseases,  after  their  skins  are  separated,  are 
often  suffered  to  remain,  exposed  to  the  air,  or  immersed  in 
water,  till  they  are  destroyed  by  birds  or  beasts  of  prey,  or 
entirely  decomposed ;  and  in  this  case  most  of  their  organ- 
izable  matler  is  lost  from  the  land  on  which  they  lie,  and  a 


AND    RURAL    ECONOBIIST.  181 

considerable  portion  of  it  emplojred  in  giving  out  noxious 
gases  to  the  atmosphere. 

'  By  covering  dead  ".nimals  with  five  or  six  times  their 
bulk  of  soil,  mixed  with  .au  part  of  lime,  and  suffering  tlicm 
to  remain  for  a  few  months,  their  decomposition  would  im- 
pregnate the  soil  with  soluble  matters,  so  as  to  render  it  an 
excellent  manure;  and  by  mixing  a  little  fresh  quicklime 
with  it,  at  the  time  of  its  removal,  the  disagreeable  eifluvia 
will  be  in  a  great  measure  destroyed,  and  it  might  be  em- 
ployed in  the  same  way  as  any  other  manure  to  crops. "^ 

If,  however,  quicklime  cannot  readily  be  obtained  to  ac- 
celerate the  conversion  of  dead  animals  into  manure,  it  is 
probable  that  covering  the  carcasses  with  a  pretty  thicic  coat 
of  unleached  ashes,  and  placing  over  all  a  quantity  of  earth 
or  earthy  substance,  would  hasten  decompositicyn,  and  secure 
the  gases  resulting  from  putrescence.  Earth  alone  will 
answer  a  valuable  purpose,  and  i.i  time  the  largest  animal 
will  l»e  decomposed  in  nothing  but  common  soil. 

Not  only  the  carcasses  of  animals,  but  their  excrements 
and  urine  are  rendered  of  little  value  by  long  exposure  to 
the  air.  Indeed,  every  moment  of  such  exposure  robs  them 
of  a  part  of  their  fertility,  as  well  as  contaminates  the  at- 
mosphere. '  He  who  is  within  the  sphere  of  the  scent  of  a 
dunghill  (says  the  celebrated  Arthur  Young)  smells  that 
which  his  crop  would  have  eaten,  if  he  would  have  permitted 
it.  Instead  of  manuring  the  land  he  manures  the  atmo- 
sphere; and  before  his  dunghill  is  finished,  he  has  manured 
another  parish,  perhaps  another  county.'  As  few  exhala- 
tions as  possible  ought  to  be  suffered  to  rise  from  the  excre- 
ments of  animals.  Fresh  manure  ought  to  be  kept  as  care- 
fully from  the  sun  and  rain  as  grass  which  has  been  cut  for 
hay.  When  cattle  have  been  yarded  over  night,  it  would 
be  well  to  throw  their  droppings  into  small  heaps  or  beds, 
and  cover  them  at  least  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  earth  to 
prevent  fermentation,  or  absorb  its  products.  This  would 
cost  but  little  labor,  and  would  much  enhance  the  value  of 
the  manure. 

It  has  been,  and  we  believe  in  some  instances  stiil  is  in 
vogue  among  farmers,  to  turn  over  and  mix  barn-yard  ma- 
nure several  times  before  it  is  carried  to  the  field.  This 
practice,  however,  is  exploded  among  the  best  informed  cul- 
tivators.    Mr.  A.  Young  says  '  no  turning,  but  if  circumstan- 

*  Agricultural  Chemistry. 
16 


182  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

ces  of  the  richness,  quantity,  or  weather  have  occasioned  too 
much  fermentation,  or  this  is  suspected,  scatter  every  now 
and  then  a  quantity  of  the  same  earth  over  the  surface,  with 
which  the  yard  was  bedded.  This  may  be  so  proportioned 
as  to  keep  the  mass  from  too  much  fermentation.' 

It  is  remarked  by  the  author  of  Letters  of  Agricola,  that 
'  Earth  is  a  powerful  absorber  of  all  the  gases  which  arise 
from  putrc'faction.  The  earth  possesses  not  only  the  proper- 
ty of  retaining  the  putrid  steams  which  are  formed  from 
the  dung  of  decomposing  bodies  within  itself,  but  alcD  of 
attracting  the  effluvia  when  floating  in  the  air.  The  salu- 
brity of  a  country  depends  on  this  latter  quality ;  as  the 
practice  of  burying  the  dung  in  the  earth  is  founded  on  the 
former.  The  stench  proceeding  from  the  dissolution  of 
organized  matter  never  rises  through  the  ground  to  assail 
the  nostrils,  although  it  is  sufficiently  offensive  from  bodies 
corrupting  in  air  or  water.  A  stroixgly  dunged  field,  after 
being  ploughed,  sown,  and  harrowed,  sends  forth  a  healthful 
and  refreshing  smell ;  a  proof  that  all  the  putrid  vapors, 
which  otherwise  would  annoy  us,  are  absorbed  and  retained 
for  the  nutrition  of  the  crop.  It  is  on  this  accoimt  that  the 
poorest  earth  can  be  enriched  in  a  very  high  degree  by  mere 
exposure  to  the  gases  of  putrefaction.  Put  a  layer  of  com- 
mon soil  along  the  top  of  a  fermenting  dunghill,  from  twelve 
to  eighteen  inches  thick,  and  allow  it  to  remain  there  while 
the  process  is  carrying  on  with  activity,  and  afterwards 
separate  it  carefully  from  the  heap,  and  it  will  have  been 
impregnated  with  the  most  fertilizing  virtues.  The  com- 
posts, which  of  late  have  attracted  such  universal  attention, 
and  occupied  so  large  a  place  in  all  agricultural  publications, 
originated  in  the  discovery  of  this  absorbing  power  of  the 
earth,  and  in  the  application  of  it  to  the  most  beneficial  of 
purposes.  A  skilful  agriculturist  would  no  more  think  of 
allowing  a  violent  fermentation  to  be  going  on  in  his  dunghill, 
unmixed  with  earth  or  other  matter  to  fix  and  secure  the 
gaseous  elements,  than  the  distiller  would  suffer  his  appara- 
tus to  be  set  at  work  Avithout  surmounting  his  still  with  the 
worm  to  cool  and  condense  the  rarefied  spirit  which  ascends 
to  evaporation.  In  both  the  most  precious  matter  is  that 
which  assumes  the  seriform  state ;  and  to  behold  it  escaping 
with  unconcerned  indifference,  is  a  demonstration  of  the 
most  profound  ignorance.' 

Liquid  Mamcre.  Water  in  its  purest  state,  when  it  has 
been  distilled  or  filtered  through  sand,  still  retains  somewhat 


AND   RUKAL    ECONOMIST.  183 

of  the  food  of  plants.  Its  component  parts,  oxygen  and 
hydiogen,  under  certain  circumstances,  are  seized  by  vegeta- 
bles while  in  their  growing  state,  and  converted  into  the  pro- 
ducts which  form  the  constituents  of  all  vegetables.  But 
pure  water  forms  a  meagre  diet  for  plants.  It  may  support 
life  in  vegetables,  and  some  plants  will  maintain  a  feeble 
growth  with  very  little  nourishment  except  what  is  afforded 
them  by  pure  water  and  air.  But  when  water  is  impregnat- 
ed with  certain  salts  and  gases,  particularly  such  as  are 
evolved  during  the  fermentation  and  decomposition  of  vege- 
table and  animal  substances,  it  becomes  what  is  called  liquid 
manure.  Urine,  or  the  stale  of  all  animals,  is  water  holding 
in  solution  certain  salts  and  other  substances,  which  are 
the  essence  of  manure^  or  the  food  of  plants  in  a  concentrated 
state. 

Fresh  urine  is  a  very  powerful  and  efficacious  manure^ 
when  properly  applied,  but  if  not  mixed  with  solid  matter  it 
should  be  diluted  with  water,  as  when  pure  it  contains  too 
large  a  quantity  of  animal  matter  to  form  a  proper  fluid 
nourishment  for  absorption  by  the  roots  of  plants.  Urine  is 
lessened  in  value,  but  its  useful  qualities  are  not  entirely 
Jost,  by  putrescence.  During  putrefaction  the  greatest  part 
f.  ''  the  soluble  animal  matter  that  urine  contains  is  destroy- 
ed ;  it  should  therefore  be  used  as  fresh  as  possible,  with  the 
precaution  of  diluting  it  with  water,  or  mixing  it  with  earth. 
Putrid  urine,  however,  is  a  valuable  manure.  It  abounds  in 
ammoniacal  salts ;  and  though  less  active  than  fresh  urine, 
is  very  efficacious. =^ 

According  to  some  writers  and  practical  farmers,  the 
value  of  the  urine  of  cattle,  if  properly  preserved  and  applied 
to  the  purposes  of  vegetation,  is  greater  than  that  of  all  the 
dung  which  the  same  animals  would  yield  !  A  letter  from 
Charles  Alexander,  near  Peebles,  in  Scotland,  addressed  to 
Sir  John  Sinclair,  in  1812,  for  publication,  contains  much 
valuable  information  on  this  subject.  '  This  intelligent  far- 
mer had  long  been  impressed  with  the  great  importance  of 
the  urine  of  cattle  as  a  manure,  and  he  set  about  to  discover, 
by  a  long  and  well-conducted  series  of  experiments,  the  best 
method  of  collecting  and  applying  it.  He  began  by  digging 
a  pit  contiguous  to  the  feeding-stall,  but  distinct  altogether 
from  that  which  was  appropriated  for  the  reception  of  the 
dung.     The  dimensions  of  this  pit,  according  to  his  own  ac- 

*  See  Davy's  Agricultural  Chemistry. 


184  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

count,  were  thirty-six  feet  square  and  four  feet  deep,  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  a  wall ;  and  the  solid  contenis  were 
one  hundred  and  ninety-two  yards.  Having  selected  the 
nearest  spot  where  he  could  find  loamy  earth,  and  this  he 
always  took  from  the  surface  of  some  field  under  cultivation, 
he  proceeded  to  fill  it;  and  found  that,  with  three  men  and 
two  horses,  he  could  easily  accomplish  twenty-eight  cubic 
yards  per  day;  and  the  whole  expense  of  transporting  the 
earth  did  not  exceed  four  pounds  sixteen  shillings  sterling, 
[about  twenty-two  dollars.]  When  the  work  was  complete, 
he  levelled  the  surface  of  the  heap  in  a  line  with  the  sewer 
which  conducted  the  urine  from  the  interior  of  the  building, 
on  purpose  that  it  might  be  distributed  with  regularity,  and 
might  saturate  the  whole  from  top  to  bottom.  The  quantity 
conveyed  to  it  he  estimates  at  about  eight  hundred  gallons ; 
but  as  this  calculation  was  founded  partly  on  conjecture,  for 
he  measured  not  the  liquor,  it  will  be  better  and  more  in- 
structive to  furnish  and  proceed  on  data  that  are  certain  and 
incontrovertible.  The  urine  was  supplied  by  fourteen  cattle, 
weighing  about  thirty-four  stone  [four  hundred  anu  seventy- 
six  pounds]  each,  and  kept  there  for  five  months  on  fodder 
and  turnips.  The  contents  of  the  pit  produced  two  hundred 
ani  eiT^hty-eight  loads,  allowing  two  cubic  yards  to  be  taken 
out  in  three  carts  ;  and  he  spread  forty  of  these  on  each  acre, 
so  that  this  urine  in  five  months,  and  from  fourteen  cattle, 
produced  a  compost  sufficient  for  the  fertilization  of  seven 
acres  of  land.  He  states  farther,  that  he  had  tried  this  e:»pe- 
riment  fur  ten  years,  and  had  indiscriminately  used  in  the 
same  field  either  the  rotted  cow-dung  or  the  saturated  earth; 
and  in  all  stages  of  the  crop,  he  had  never  been  able  to  find 
any  perceptible  difference.  But  what  is  still  more  wonder- 
ful, he  found  his  compost  lasted  in  its  effects  as  many  years 
as  his  best  putrescent  manure  ;  and  he  therefore  boldly  avers, 
that  a  load  of  each  is  of  equivalent  value. 

'  It  appears,  then,  that  in  five  months  each  cow  discharges 
urine  which,  when  absorbed  by  loam,  furnishes  manure  of 
the  richest  quality  and  most  durable  effects  for  half  an  acre 
of  ground.  The  dung-pit,  which  contained  all  the  excre- 
mentitious  matter  of  the  fourteen  cattle,  as  well  as  the  litter 
employed  in  bedding  them,  and  which  was  kept  separate  for 
the  purpose  of  the  experiment,  only  furnished,  during  the 
same  period,  two  hundred  and  forty  loads,  and  these,  at  the 
same  rate,  could  only  manure  six  acres.  The  aggregate 
value  of  the  urine,  therefore,  when  compared  with  that  of  the 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  185 

dung,  was  in  the  ratio  of  seven  to  six ;  so  that  we  are  borne 
out  by  these  premises  in  this  extraordinary  inference,  that 
the  putrescible  liquor,  which  in  this  province,  [Nova  Scotia,] 
and  under  the  management  of  our  farmers,  is  wasted  and 
annihihited  as  far  as  regards  any  useful  purposes,  is  intrinsi- 
cally worth  more  than  the  dung,  as  an  efficacious  and  per- 
manent dressing ;  and  if  we  take  into  consideration  that  this 
latter  manure  is  not  treated  with  any  skill  and  judgment,  it 
will  not  seem  surprising,  that  the  culture  of  white  crops  has 
never  been  carried  here  to  any  extent,  since  we  have  despised 
and  neglected  the  only  means  of  creating  them.'^ 

We  apprehend  that  the  farmers  of  the  United  States  are 
not,  generally  speaking,  any  more  solicitous  to  turn  the 
urine  cf  their  cattle  to  account  for  manure,  than  those  of 
Nova  Scotia.  There  are  some  cultivators,  however,  who 
have  taken  measures  to  secure  this  substance,  and  to  apply 
it  to  useful  purposes.  Mr.  Robert  Smith,  of  Baltimore,  has 
his  stables  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  all  the  liquid 
discharges  of  his  cattle  are  conducted,  together  with  the 
wash  of  the  barn-yard,  into  a  cistern,  pumped  into  a  hogs- 
head, and  applied  in  a  liquid  state  to  the  soil  which  it  is 
wished  to  manure.!  This  mode  of  making  use  of  this  sub- 
stance is  likewise  recommended  in  the  Code  of  Agriculture, 
as  follows  :  '  The  advantages  of  irrigating  grass  lands  with 
cow  urine  almost  exceed  belief.  Mr.  Harley,  of  Glasgow, 
(who  keeps  a  large  dairy  in  that  town,)  by  using  cow  urine, 
cuts  some  small  fields  of  grass  six  times,  and  the  average  of 
each  cutting  is  fifteen  inches  in  length.  There  are  disad- 
vantages, however,  attending  this  mode  of  applying  this 
powsrful  manure.  It  must  be  applied  soon  after  it  is  formed, 
or  oftentimes  the  putrefactive  process  will  commence,  and 
deprive  it  of  a  part  of  its  efficacy.  And  as  urine  is  of  a 
scorching  quality,  it  is  unsafe  to  apply  it  to  growing  crops 
in  great  heat  or  drought.  Hence  it  is  unadvisable  to  use  it, 
except  for  grass,  after  the  month  of  April  or  May,  unless 
diluted.  It  is  particularly  useful  in  the  spring,  when  the 
application  of  liquid  manure  gives  a  new  impetus  to  the 
plant,  and  makes  its  growth  more  vigorous.  This  manure 
forces  newly  planted  cabbages  in  a  most  remarkable  manner.' 

If  it  be  true  that  more  manure  can  be  obtained  from  the 
stale  of  cattle  than  from  their  dung  and  litter,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  seven  to  six,  (as  would  seem  by  Mr.  Alexander's   ex- 

*  Letters  of  Agricola.       f  See  N.  E.  Farmer,  vol.  i.  No.  6.  p.  44. 
16-^ 


186  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

periments  as  above  detailed,)  and  that  by  our  common  modes 
of  husbandry  this  stale  is  nearly  or  qui+e  squandered  away, 
the  discovery  is  of  very  great  importance  indeed  to  agricul- 
ture. It  is  nothing  less  than  a  method  by  which  farmers  may, 
with  a  small  expense,  somewhat  more  than  double  their  usual 
quantity  of  stable  manure.  And  if  farmers  should  '  value 
manure  as  a  miser  does  his  strong  box,  should  grasp  after 
and  hoard  it  as  eagerly  and  anxiously  as  a  covetous  man 
accumulates  treasure,"*  surely  the  wise  cultivator  will  not 
grudge  oome  labor  and  expense  to  acquire  more  than  double 
the  usual  quantity  of  so  valuable  an  article.  It  is  very  true 
there  are  many  things  to  be  taken  into  consideration  in  all 
these  economical  processes.  A  principal  inquiry  should  ever 
be,  whether  the  saving  will  cost  more  than  the  benefit  arising 
from  it  will  be  worth.  Many  improvements  which  are  high- 
ly valuable  in  old  and  populous  countries,  w^iere  labor  is 
cheap  and  land  dear,  cannot  be  advantageously  adopted  in 
this  country,  v/here  the  object,  in  general,  is  rather  to  make 
the  most  of  our  labor  than  of  our  land.  It  is  to  be  recollect- 
ed, likewise,  that  in  New  England,  during  a  considerable 
part  of  the  time  in  which  cattle  are  usually  housed,  the  liquid 
manure  is  soon  converted  into  ice,  and  in  that  state  must  be 
transferred  to  the  dung-heap,  or  inconvenient  accumulations 
will  take  place  before  a  thaw  would  render  it  practicable  to 
separate  the  liquid  from  the  solid  parts  of  the  manure.  Still, 
with  all  these  disadvantages,  we  believe,  in  most  cases,  it  is 
highly  advisable  to  preserve  the  liquid  portion  of  stable  ma- 
nure separate  from  the  solid  part ;  especially  where  cattle 
are  soiled  or  horses  stabled  during  all  or  the  greater  part  of 
the  year. 

Manure  for  Grass  Grounds,  Top-dressings,  <^c.  An  in- 
telligent and  scientific  cultivator  has  given  the  following 
directions  on  this  subject. 

There  is  scarcely  any  question  on  which  farmers  are 
more  divided  than  as  to  the  policy  of  applying  manure  as  a 
top-dressing  to  grass  lands,  in  the  spring  or  fall.  The  rea- 
soning seems  to  be  in  favor  of  spring  dressing,  and  it  is  sup- 
ported by  many  excellent  names.  But  it  ought  to  be  known, 
that  intelligent  farmers  near  the  metropolis  most  generally 
dress  their  lands  in  autumn.  Besides  the  reason  stated 
above,  that  grass  lands  are  less  injured  by  carting  over  them 

*  These  expressions,  we  believe,  belong  to  the  Hon.  Mr.  Peters,  of 
Pennsylvania,  but  we  do  not  recollect  where  we  found  them. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  187 

In  the  fall,  it  may  be  added,  that  it  is  a  season  of  greater 
leisure;  and  although  it  is  confidently  asserted,  that  the 
manure  is  wasted  by  rains  and  snows,  yet  much  ought  to  be 
allowed  on  the  other  side  for  the  protection  afforded  by  the 
top-dressing  to  the  tender  roots  of  the  plants  during  winter ; 
and  ought  we  not  to  add  something  for  the  low  temperature 
of  the  atmosphere  in  winter,  which  prevents  evaporation? 
whatever  principles  of  fertility  exist  in  manure,  are  in  win- 
ter carried  down  into  the  soil.  We  are  fully  convinced  that 
a  scorching  sun  and  drying  air  are  more  pernicious  to  ma- 
nures spread  thinly  over  the  surface  than  any  drenching 
rains  can  be,  unless  on  declivities,  w^here  top-dressings  are  un- 
questionably of  less  value  than  on  level  grounds.  The  fact 
that  farmers  who  grow  rich  by  supplying  the  great  towns 
with  hay  generally  adopt  the  practice  of  fall  dressing  their 
grass  lands,  deserves  weight. 

Top-dressing  should  not  be  used  in  the  fall  for  winter 
grain,  because  they  would  be  apt  to  make  the  young  plants 
come  forward  too  fast  and  grow  so  rank  that  they  would  be 
liable  to  be  winter-killed.  Top-dressing  foi  wheat,  rye,  &c. 
should  be  applied  to  the  growing  crop  in  the  spring  or  early 
in  the  summer,  when  it  is  suspected  that  the  land  is  not  rich 
enough  to  bring  a  full  crop  to  perfection. 

With  regard  to  the  materials  for  dressing  your  grass 
grounds,  after  your  garden  is  supplied  with  manure,  you  may 
as  well  cart  on  to  your  mowing  land  all  that  you  can  collect 
from  your  barn-yards,  your  stercoraries  or  dung-heaps,  hog- 
pens, compost  beds,  night  soil,  &;c.  &c.  &c.  All  sorts  of 
dung,  however,  before  being  applied  to  grass  land,  should  be 
well  mixed  with  loam,  sand,  or  some  kind  of  earth  which 
will  imbibe  the  gas  or  effluvia  of  the  dung  or  putrescent 
manure.  We  have  said  before,  in  substance,  that  all  kinds 
of  putrescent  manure  (that  is,  those  animal  or  vegetable 
substances  which  are  liable  to  putrefy,  mould,  and  be  wasted 
when  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air)  are  in  a  great  measure 
thrown  away,  if  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  before 
being  made  into  compost. "^  '  Spreading  putrescent  sub- 
stances upon  the  surface  of  a  field  of  grass  ground,  is  to  ma- 
nure not  the  soil,  but  the  atmosphere  ;  and  is  justly  con- 
demned as  the  most  injudicious  plan  that  can  be  devised  in 
an  arable  district.'!     If  dung  not  made  into   compost  nor 

*  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  i.  p.  321.         f  Code  of  Agriculture. 


188  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

mixed  with  earth  or  any  substance  which  will  attract  and 
imbibe  its  gas,  effluvia,  volatile  products,  or  (to  be  more  plain) 
that  which  causes  it  to  smell  unpleasantly,  be  applied  to 
a  field  of  plough  land,  it  ought  to  be  spread  evenly  and 
ploughed,  or  at  least  harrowed  in  immediately.  If  a  farmer's 
chief  dependence  is  in  grazing  land,  and  he  has  dung,  or  pu- 
trescent manure  not  made  into  compost,  to  apply,  we  would 
suggest  it  for  his  consideration  whether  it  might  not  be  well, 
first  to  spread  his  dung  as  evenly  as  possible  over  his  field, 
and  then  spread  over  the  whole  at  least  an  equal  quantity  of 
good  eprth  or  loam.  By  such  means  a  compost  is  made  in 
the  field  after  the  putrescent  manure  is  applied,  and  the  earth 
or  loam  spread  over  the  dung  will  not  only  absorb  its  gase- 
ous products,  but  in  a  great  measure  protect  it  from  being 
dried  by  the  air  or  scorched  by  the  sun,  till  its  fertilizing 
qualities  are  dissipated.  This  metnod  of  managing  with  top- 
dressing  for  grass  land,  however,  we  should  suggest  merely 
as  an  expedient  for  the  saving  of  labor  in  cases  where  far- 
mers have  much  dung,  but  little  plough  land  in  proportion, 
and  with  whom  the  saving  of  labor  is  a  very  great  object. 
As  a  general  rule,  the  following  maxim  of  Sir  John  Sinclair 
will  apply  as  well  in  this  country  as  in  Great  Britain. 
'  There  are  strong  objections  to  the  application  of  dung  to 
grass  lands ;  (much  of  its  strength  being  evaporated,  from  its 
being  exposed  to  atmospheric  influence  ;)  composts  are  greatly 
to  be  preferred.  They  may  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  from 
thirty  to  forty  cubic  yards  per  acre.  To  keep  grass  land  in 
good  condition,  a  dressing  to  this  amount  is  required  every 
four  years.  The  application  of  unmixed  putrescent  manure 
will  thus  be  rendered  unnecessary.' 

The  mode  in  which  some  farmers  manage  with  regard  to 
manuring  their  grass  lands  is  not  only  absurd,  but  ruinous. 
Early  in  the  fall  they  cart  their  dung  from  their  barn-yards 
and  sties,  which  perhaps  had  been  a  year  or  more  accumulat- 
ing, and  of  course  is  finely  pulverized  and  ready  to  take 
the  wings  of  every  breeze.  They  place  it  on  a  tough  SAvard 
in  little  heaps  about  the  size  of  a  two  bushel  basket.  The 
sun,  high  winds,  rain,  and  drying  atmosphere,  all  conspire  to 
rob  these  little  heaps  of  nearly  all  their  fertilizing  qualities, 
and  leave  little  but  a  dead  mass  of  matter  as  'dry  as  a  husk.' 
Late  in  the  spring,  and  generally  during  or  just  before  a  dry 
time,  Mr.  Cultivator  spreads  these  little  heaps  (reduced  by 
exposure  to  wind  and  weather  to  about  the  size  of  a  half 
bushel  measure)  over  the  sward.     If  the  season  proves  dry, 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  1S9 

the  manure,  particularly  that  part  which  was  collected  from 
the  sty,  has  scarcely  any  other  effect  than  to  ass'st  the  sun 
in  scorching  the  grass.  In  the  mean  time  the  arable  land, 
being-  left  destitute  of  manure  for  the  sake  of  dunging  the 
grass  ground,  yields  not  half  a  crop.  The  poor  farmer  be- 
lieves his  land  worn  out,  and  thinks  it  high  time  to  '  pk.cic 
up  stakes  and  be  off  to  the  Ohio  !' 

Unless  you  have  plenty  of  manure,  you  had  better  not  ap- 
ply any  dung  to  your  high,  gravelly,  or  sandy  soils,  but  dress 
them  with  plaster  of  Paris.  Uneven  grass  grounds  will  not 
admit  of  top-dressing  to  any  advantage,  on  account  of  the 
manure's  being  liable  to  be  washed  away. 

Previous  to  manuring  your  grass  lands,  it  will  be  well  to 
harrow  or  scarify  them.  '  Rolling  was  formerly  considered 
to  be  indispensable  in  the  management  of  grass  lands,  tending 
to  smooth  and  consolidate  the  surface,  to  p^revent  the  for- 
mation of  ant-hills,  and  to  render  the  effects  of  drought  less 
pernicious.  But  scarifying  i\iQ  X\xt^  \\ii\\  a  plough,  consist- 
ing only  of  coulters,  or  with  a  harrow  so  that  the  whole  sur- 
face may  be  cut  or  torn,  is  to  be  recommended  when  the 
pastures  [or  mowing  land]  are  hidebound.  That  tenacious 
state  rolling  tends  to  increc.se ;  whereas  by  scarifying  the 
surface  is  loosened,  and  the  roots  acquire  new  means  of  im- 
proved vegetation.  This  operation  seems  particularly  use- 
ful when  it  precedes  the  manuring  of  grass  lands ;  for  if 
well  scarified,  the  ground  is  so  opened,  that  any  manure 
spread  upon  it  gets  at  once  to  the  roots  ;  consequently  a  small 
quantity  thus  applied,  goes  as  far  as  a  larger  one  laid  on  in 
the  old  mode,  and  without  such  an  operation.  Thus  the 
force  of  the  objections  to  the  application  of  putrescent  ma- 
nure to  grass  laads  is  in  some  degree  obviated.'"^  After 
such  process  it  may  be  well  to  sow  grass  seeds,  to  produce 
a  new  set  of  plants,  and  supersede  the  necessity  of  breaking 
up  the  soil  to  prevent  its  being '  hound  out,''  as  the  phrase  is. 

It  is  a  bad  practice  to  feed  your  mowing  land  very  closely 
in  the  fall.  There  should  be  enough  of  the  after  grass  left 
to  protect  the  roots  of  the  grass  against  the  frosts  of  winter. 
We  have  known  good  farmers  who  would  not  suffer  their 
mowing  land  to  be  pastured  ?t  any  time  of  the  year.  But 
if  the  soil  be  well  dressed  with  manure  it  can  do  but  little 
or  any  injury  to  pasture  it  in  the  fore  part  of  autumn,  taking 

*Code  of  Agriculture. 


190 


THE    COBIPLETE    FARMER 


care  not  to  let  cattle  run  upon  it  when  wet,  and  so  soft  that 
they  would  make  much  impression  on  it  with  their  feet. 

Manure  frovi  Swine.  Very  valuable  manure,  with  a  little 
attention,  maybe  obtained  from  swine  by  n.ethods  similar  to 
that  described  by  a  writer  for  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol. 
ii.  p.  178,  as  follows: 

I  usually  keep  and  fatten  four  hogs  in  a  year.  These  I 
keep  confined  in  a  yard  twenty  feet  square,  with  a  warm  and 
convenient  shed  attached  thereto  as  a  shelter  for  them  during 
the  night  time  and  in  cold  and  stormy  weather.  Into  their 
yard  I  put  the  scrapings  of  ditches,  the  dirt  which  is  con- 
tinually collecting  in  and  about  the  dwelling-house  and  other 
buildings,  together  with  the  straw  with  which  they  are  lit- 
tered, frequently  clearing  it  out  of  their  house  ai.d  granting 
them  a  fresh  supply.  During  the  summer  season  I  often 
throw  in  large  quantities  of  weeds,  brakes,  and  other  rubbish 
that  may  come  to  hand,  which  helps  to  increase  both  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  manure.  In  this  way  I  make 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty  loads  of  manure  in  a  year,  which 
answers  a  more  valuable  purpose  than  that  which  I  take  from 
the  stable  or  barn-yard. 

The  last  spring  I  planted  a  field  containing  two  acres  with 
corn.  One-half  of  the  piece  was  manured  in  the  hill  with 
ten  loads  from  the  hogpen,  the  other  half  with  the  same 
quantity  of  the  best  manure  the  barn-yard  afforded. 

A  visible  difference  was  to  be  seen  in  the  growth  of  the 
corn  through  the  season,  and  at  the  time  of  harvest  the  dif- 
ference was  still  more  discernible.  That  part  manured  from 
the  hogpen  produced  ears  generally  much  larger  than  that 
manured  from  the  barn-yard,  a  great  proportion  of  the  stalks 
bearing  two,  and  many  of  them  three  ears  each. 

Having  harvested  and  measured  my  corn,  I  found  the  result 
to  be  as  follows :  the  produce  of  the  part  manured  from  the 
hogpen  fifty  bushels,  while  that  of  the  other  part  was  but 
forty-two  bushels,  making  a  difference  of  eight  bushels  in  fa- 
vor of  the  former. 

I  have  lately  taken  tAventy-eight  loads  of  strong  manure 
from  my  hog-yard  which  has  been  collected  the  past  year, 
and  Avhich  will  be  a  sufficient  quantity  to  manure  two  and 
a  half  acres  in  the  hill ;  and  should  the  difference  be  as  great 
in  its  favor  the  next  as  it  has  been  this  year,  the  extra  pro- 
duce will  more  than  repay  the  whole  expense  of  making  the 
manure. 

Manures  may  be   divided  into  two  classes.     The  one  is 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  191 

called  animal  and  vegetable  or  putrescent  manures.  They 
consist  oi"  decayed  and  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances. The  other  class  is  denominated  fossil  manures. 
The  lust  mentioned  do  not  properly  constitute  the  food  of 
plants,  plthough  they  enter  into  the  composition  of  vegeta- 
bles in  miiute  quantities.  Fossil  manures  stimulate  plants, 
and  cause  them  to  take  iheir  food  faster  than  thf-.y  otherwise 
would.  They  are  like  what  medical  men  call  condiments, 
and  answer  the  same  purpose  as  respects  the  economy  of 
vegetables  which  salt,  pepper,  spices,  &c.  effect  as  regards 
the  animal  economy. 

The  principal  fossil  manures  are  lime,  gypsum,  and  marl. 
We  shall  make  a  few  observations  on  each. 

1.  Advantages  of  Lime.  Though  there  are  exceptions  to 
the  rule,  yet,  in  general,  it  may  be  confidently  asserted,  that, 
unless  where  a  soil  has  by  nature  enough  of  calcareous 
matter  in  its  composition  for  the  purposes  of  vegetation,  it 
can  neither  be  brought  into  its  most  fertile  states,  nor  will 
other  manures  be  so  useful  as  they  ought,  if  lime  or  some 
other  calcareous  earth  be  not  previously  applied.  By  lime 
spread  upon  a  moory  soil,  good  herbage  is  produced  where 
nothing  but  heath  and  unpalatable  grasses  grew  before.  By 
the  same  means,  grass  lands,  instead  of  yielding  nothing  but 
bent,  and  other  inferior  grasses,  have  been  covered  with  those 
of  a  more  valuable  description.  The  utility  of  lime  to  tur- 
nips is  so  great,  that,  though  in  the  same  field,  where  no 
lime  had  been  applied  the  crop  died  away,  yet  in  the  limed 
part  thf^  turnips  flourished  with  unabated  vigor.  On  the 
Mendip  Imds  in  Somerset,  by  the  application  of  lime,  the 
value  of  land  was  raised  from  four  shillings  to  thirty  shillings 
per  acre  ;  and  dung,  which  previous  to  liming  had  no  sensi- 
ble effect,  operated  after  its  application  as  on  other  lands. 
Macclesfield  forest  in  Cheshire,  and  vast  tracts  in  the  north- 
ern and  more  elevated  parts  of  Derbyshire  and  adjacent  dis- 
tricts, have  been  astonishingly  improved  by  the  same  means. 
The  rye  lands  of  Herefordshire  in  1636  refused  to  produce 
wheat,  peas,  or  vetches  ;  but  since  the  introduction  of  lime, 
they  h^ve  been  so  fertilized,  as  to  be  successfully  applied  to 
the  growth  of  every  species  of  corn.  In  maiden  soils  of  a 
tolerable  quality,  the  richest  manure  will  not  enable  them 
to  bring  any  crops,  but  those  of  oats  or  rye,  to  maturity  ; 
whereas,  if  they  receive  a  sufficient  quantity  of  lime,  crops 
of  peas,  barley,  or  wheat,  may  be  raised  to  advantage.  The 
benefit  resulting  from  the  use  of  lime  has  been  indisputably 


192  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

proved  in  the  same  farm ;  for  the  richer  parts  that  were  left 
unlimed  were  uniformly  inferior  in  produce  to  the  poorer 
that  had  been  limed,  during  a  period  of  not  less  than  twenty- 
one  years,  under  the  same  course  of  management. 

Z.  The  principles  on  which  lime  operates  as  a  manure. 
Quicklime  ir.  powder,  or  dissolved  in  water,  is  injurious  to 
plants ;  hence  grass  watered  with  lime-water  is  destroyed. 
But  lime  freshly  burnt,  or  slacked,  forms  a  compost  with 
vegetable  matter,  w^iich  is  soluble  in  water,  and  nutritive  to 
plants.  Mild  lime  (as  chalk,  or  quicklime  again  impr.^gnat- 
ed  with  carbonic  ac'd)  chiefly  operates  by  improving  the 
texture  of  the  soil  and  its  relation  to  absorption. 

3.  The  various  sorts  of  Limestone.  Sometimes  limestone 
is  almost  perfectly  pure,  as  is  the  case  with  marble,  which 
frequently  contains  scarcely  any  other  substance  but  calcare- 
ous matter.  Several  sorts  of  limestone,  however,  have  mix- 
tures of  clay  and  sand,  in  various  proportions,  by  w^hich  the 
efficacy  of  the  manure,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  these 
substances,  is  considerably  diminished.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  analyze  limestone,  to  ascertain  the  proportion 
of  pure  lime,  before  it  is  advisable  to  use  so  expensive  an  ar- 
ticle in  great  quantities,  more  especially  if  it  must  be  con- 
veyed from  a  distance.  Bituminous  limestone  makes  good 
manure.  But  the  magnesian  is  the  species  which  requires 
the  greatest  attention.  Limestone  sometimes  contains  from 
20.3  to  23.0  of  magnesia,  in  which  case  it  would  be  injurious 
to  weak  soils  to  apply  more  than  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
bushels  per  statute  acre,  though  in  rich  soils  double  that 
quantity  may  be  used,  and  still  more  with  peat,  on  which 
soil  it  would  have  a  most  powerful  effect  in  producing  fer- 
tility. 

4.  Mode  of  preparing  it  for  use.  Limestone  is  burnt  in 
kilns  of  various  constructions.  It  is  applied  with  advantage 
to  soils  recently  reclaimed  in  a  caustic  state;  but  is  gene- 
rally slaclied,  by  throwing  water  upon  the  lumps,  until  they 
crack  and  swell,  and  fall  down  into  a  fine  powder.  This 
operation,  when  it  is  to  be  done,  should  not  be  delayed ;  for 
if  properly  burnt,  calcined  lime  is  easily  reduced  into  a  fine 
powder,  which  may  not  be  the  case  if  the  slacking  be  post- 
poned. If  water  cannot  easily  be  obtained,  the  lumps  may 
either  be  divided  into  small  heaps  and  covered  with  earth, 
by  the  moisture  of  which  they  are  soon  pulverized,  or  made 
into  large  heaps,  the  lumps  and  earth  six  inches  thick,  and 
the  whole  covered  with  earth.     Where  it  can  easily  be  had, 


AND    RURAL    ECO:^IOMIST.  193 

it  is  a  great  advantage  to  slack  the  calcined  limestone  for  ma- 
nure with  sea-water  or  urine.  When  opplied  to  land  in  a  pow- 
dery state,  lime  tends  to  bring  anv  hard  vegetable  matter  that 
the  soil  contains  into  a  more  rapid  state  of  decomposition 
and  solution,  so  as  to  render  it  a  proper  food  for  plants. 

5.  Application.  Summer  is  the  proper  season  for  liming 
land.  That  experienced  farmer,  Mr.  Rennie  of  Phantassie, 
is  of  opinion,  that  the  most  profitable  period  for  applying 
lime  is  when  the  land  is  under  summer  fallow,  in  the  months 
of  June  and  July,  that  it  may  be  completely  mixed  with  the 
soil  before  the  crop  is  sown.  This  is  also  the  general  prac- 
tice in  other  districts.  For  a  turnip  crop,  it  should  be  laid 
on  early  in  the  spring  before  the  turnips  are  drilled,  in  order 
that  the  lime  may  be  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil, 
by  the  ploughings  and  harrowings  it  will  receive  ;  the  land 
will  thus  have  time  to  cool,  and  the  lime  will  not  dry  up 
the  moisture  necessary  for  bringing  the  turnips  into  leaf. 
For  ^,otatoes,  lime  is  not  to  be  recommended,  as  it  is  apt  to 
burn  and  blister  their  skins.  When  applied  to  old  ley,  it  is 
a  good  practice  to  spread  it  on  the  surface  previously  to  the 
land  being  broken  up,  by  which  it  is  fixed  firmly  on  the 
sward.  One  year  has  been  found  of  use  ;  but  when  done 
three  years  before,  it  had  produced  still  greater  advantages; 
in  the  former  case,  the  increase  of  oats  being  only  at  the  rate 
of  six  to  one,  and  in  the  latter,  that  of  ten  to  one  of  the  seed 
sown.  The  quantity  applied  nmL,i  vary  according  to  the 
soil.  From  two  hundred  and  forty  to  three  hundred  bushels 
of  unslacked  lime  may  be  applied  on  strong  lands  with  ad- 
vantage. Even  six  hundied  bushels  have  been  laid  on  at 
once,  on  strong  clays,  with  great  success.  On  light  soils,  a 
much  smaller  quantity  will  answer,  say  from  one  hundred 
and  fifty  to  two  hundred  bushels;  but  these  small  doses 
ought  to  be  more  frequently  repeated.  When  applied  on 
the  surface  of  bogs  or  moors,  the  quantity  used  is  very  con- 
siderable, and  the  more  that  is  laid  on,  the  greater  the  im- 
provement. The  real  quantity,  however,  of  calcareous  mat- 
ter used,  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the  stone.  It  often 
happens,  that  five  chaldrons  do  not  furnish  more  effective  ma- 
nure than  three,  because  they  do  not  contain  three-fifths  of 
calcareous  matter. 

6.  Effects  of  Lime.  Many  farmers  have  subjected  them- 
selves to  an  expense  at  the  rate  of  ten  shillings  per  acre  per 
annum  for  the  lime  they  used,  and  have  been  amply  remu- 
nerated.    The   benefit   derived  in  the  cultivation  of  green 

17 


194  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

crops  is  sufficient  for  that  purpose.  Such  crops  may  be 
raised  by  large  quantities  of  dung  ;  but  where  calcareous 
substances  are  applied,  it  is  proved,  by  long  experience,  that 
a  less  quantity  of  animal  and  vegetable  manure  will  answer 
the  purpose.  This  is  making  the  farm-yard  dung  go  farther, 
with  more  powerful  and  more  permanent  efiects ;  and  from 
the  weightier  crops  thus  raised,  the  quantity  of  manure  on  a 
farm  will  be  most  materially  augmented.  Indeed,  upon  land 
in  a  proper  state  for  calcareous  application,  (as  old  ley,)  lime 
is  much  superior  to  dung.  Its  effects  continue  for  a  longer 
period,  while  the  crops  produced  are  of  a  superior  quality, 
and  less  susceptible  of  injury  from  the  excesses  of  drought 
and  moisture.  The  ground  likewise,  more  especially  if  it 
be  of  a  strong  nature,  is  much  more  easily  WTOught ;  and,  in 
some  instances,  the  saviyig  of  labor  alone  would  be  sufficient 
to  induce  a  farmer  to  lime  his  land,  were  no  greater  benefit 
derived  from  the  application  than  the  opportunity  thereby 
gained  of  working  it  in  a  more  perfect  manner. 

7.  Kules  for  the  management  of  hime.  1.  It  is  necessary 
to  ascertain  the  quality  of  the  soil  to  which  lime  is  proposed 
to  be  applied ;  and  whether  it  has  formerly  been  limed ;  and 
to  what  extent.  In  general  it  may  be  observed,  that  strong 
loams  and  stubborn  clays  require  a  full  dose  to  bring  them 
into  action,  as  such  soils  are  capable  of  absorbing  a  great 
quantity  of  calcareous  matter.  Lighter  soils,  however,  re- 
quire less  lime  to  stimulate  them  ;  and  may  be  injured  by 
administering  a  quantity  of  lime  recently  calcined,  that  would 
prove  moderately  beneficial  to  those  of  a  heavy  nature.  2. 
As  the  efiects  of  lime  greatly  depend  on  its  intimate  admix- 
ture with  the  surface  soils,  it  is  expedient  to  have  it  in  a 
powdered  state  before  it  is  applied,  and  the  drier  and  the 
more  perfectly  powdered  the  better.  3.  Lime  having  a  ten- 
dency to  sink  in  the  soil,  it  cannot  be  ploughed  in  with  too 
shallow  a  furrow,  or  kept  too  near  the  surface.  4.  Lime 
ought  not  to  be  applied  a  second  time  to  weak  or  poor  soils, 
unless  mixed  with  a  compost ;  after  which  the  land  should 
be  immediately  laid  down  to  grass. "^ 

The  following,  on  the  '  Stimulation  of  Soils,'  was  written 
by  the  Hon.  John  Welles,  of  Boston,  and  published  in  the 
New  England  Farmer,  vol.  xi.  p.  217. 

'From  a  frequent  perusal  of  the  benefits  derived  from  lime 
in  its  application  to  soil  in  Europe,  I  have  been   induced  for 

*  Encyclopedia  of  Agriculture. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST  195 

more  than  a  score  of  years,  successively,  to  make  use  of  it 
for  agricultural  purposes  to  the  extent  of  more  than  one 
hundred  casks  annually. 

'  One  of  my  first  experiments  arose  from  a  desire  to  give  a 
top-diessing  to  a  piece  of  land,  which  it  was  otherwise  in- 
convenient to  do.  The  soil  was  a  heavy  black  loam.  Hav- 
ing a  quantity  of  black  earth  from  a  trench,  (or  top  stratum,) 
I  procured  a  quantity  of  lime.  A  bottom  of  four  cr  five  buck 
loads  of  earth  was  first  placed;  then  a  couple  of  casks  of 
lime  were  spread  thereon ;  then  earth  and  lime  again,  till 
my  materials  were  used,  or  the  quantity  needed  was  had,  at 
the  rate  of  eight  or  ten  casks  to  the  acre  ;  thus  a  cask  be- 
ing supposed  to  produce  about  five  bushels  of  slacked  lime, 
the  cost  of  which,  if  the  casks  are  swelled  and  the  lime  partly 
slacked,  is  eight  to  ten  cents  a  bushel.  This  is  the  most 
moderate  application  in  Europe,  and  the  cost  is  about  the 
same. 

*  This  mixture,  after  lying  twelve  or  fourteen  days,  was 
shovelled  over,  and  after  some  days  being  found  fine  and  well 
mixed,  was  spread  from  the  cart  on  the  ground.  To  my 
surprise  I  found  the  effect  produced  to  be  equal  to  what  is 
usual  from  common  compost  manure! 

'  In  England,  where  lime  is  most  used  for  agricultural 
purposes,  it  is  considered  that  in  its  crude  state,  or  uncal- 
cined  ,state,  it  is  most  beneficial,  if  pounded  or  made  fine. 
This,  where  limestone  abounds,  it  is  well  to  know;  but  there 
is  little  of  it  in  this  neighborhood.  Encouraged  by  this 
experiment,  I  continued  to  purchase  and  apply  considera- 
able  quantities  of  damaged  and  air-slacked  lime^  in  my  cul- 
tivation, particularly  for  a  low,  flat  piece  of  land.  This  be- 
ing intersected  with  small  ditches,  furnished  the  earth.  I 
was  not  able  otherwise  to  procure  to  mix  with  the  lime.  It 
is  not  well,  however,  in  such  cases,  to  lower  the  surface  by 
taking  off  more  than  will  keep  the  ditches  open.  When  the 
earth  is  tough  wdth  sward,  &c.,  it  may  be  made  finer  by  being 
carted  out  and  put  in  heaps  on  the  ground,  and  spread  after- 
wards. Indeed  this  is  done  to  great  advantage  in  the  winter; 
the  poaching  the  land,  or  making  a  rough  surface  for  the 
scythe,  being  then  well  avoided. 

'As  this  land  cannot  advantageously  be  ploughed,  I  have, 
in  applying  every  third  year  a  top-dressing,  £fs  my  custom  is, 

*  Lime  long  exposed  to  the  air,  such  as  sweepings  of  stores,  &c.,  is  of 
less  value  and  more  cheaply  obtained. 


196  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

alternated,  giving  first  a  dressing  of  earth  and  lime,  and  at 
the  expiration  of  three  years,  a  coat  of  compost  manure. 

'  This  has  been  done  on  the  principle  that  a  more  judi- 
cious mixture  would  be  made,  and  a  better  composi  on  of 
soil  be  had.  1  have  been  guided  herein  from  general  rea- 
soning, not  from  any  proof  that  the  lime  might  not  be  re- 
peated. 

'  It  seems,  however,  to  be  a  prevailing  opinion,  where 
lime  has  been  most  in  use,  that  it  opens  the  sod  and  makes 
it  more  porous,  giving  thereby  a  better  action  to  other  ma- 
nures, which  a  judicious  husbandry  should  in  succession  ap- 
ply. In  this  application  of  lime  to  a  grass  sward,  in  a  deep 
springy  soil,  I  have  been  for  a  long  time  well  satisfied.  It 
was  several  years  before  I  undertook  the  same  practice  on  a 
light  soil,  and  I  did  it  with  less  expectation.  But  I  was 
somewhat  surprised  to  find  it  equally  beneficial. 

'  So  far  lime  has  been  mentioned  as  a  component  article  in 
top-dressing  for  a  green  sward.  Its  effect  will  be  shown  on 
ploughed  land,  and  in  a  grain  crop. 

'  With  a  view  of  increasing  fertility,  I  frequently  have  ap- 
plied on  the  side  of  the  hills  of  Indian  corn  a  small  handful 
of  slacked  lime.  I  so  placed  it,  lest  the  caustic  quality  of 
the  lime  should  prove  injurious  to  the  tender  plant  when  it 
first  started  from  the  soil.  This  is  my  opinion  and  practice; 
though  I  have  often  since  seen  large  pieces  slacken  and  ex- 
pand on  the  soil  without  injury  to  the  grass,  which  in  a 
lively  green  color  pierced  through  it.  This  application  of 
lime  to  the  hill  I  continued  for  some  time,  and  thouglt  small 
in  quantity  or  effect,  I  still  thought  it  of  some  advantage.  I 
Avas  led,  however,  to  a  more  extensive  and  satisfactory  expe- 
riment. 

'  I  had  a  piece  of  ground  of  about  four  acres,  of  rather 
light  soil,  which  gave  promise  of  a  very  small  crop  of  grass. 
Being  without  the  means  of  obtaining  manure,  as  I  iiad  a 
quantity  of  earth  of  the  top  stratum,  taken  up  on  building  a 
wall,  I  forthwith  procured  a  quantity  of  lime  and  mixed  it  in 
the  manner  before  mentioned.  About  the  middle  of  June 
I  had  the  grass  mowed  and  the  land  ploughed.  The  lime 
compost  was  then  spread  and  lightly  harrowed  in.  Vn  early 
sort  of  yellow  corn,  which  when  ripe  husked  itself,  'va  as  pro- 
cured. And  my  neighbors,  Avho  knew  the  process,  were,  in 
the  fall  of  the  year,  much  surprised  by  the  stout  ears  of 
golden  grain  thus  unfolded  to  view ! 

'  I  trust  enough  has  been  said  to  show  the  beneficial  use 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  197 

of  lime.  Whether  it  acts  on  the  atmosphere  only,  or  as  a 
stimulant  to  the  soil,  or  actually  contains  (as  is  strongly 
maintained  by  some)  within  itself  the  food  for  plants,  is  well 
worthy  of  discussion. 

'  But  whether  either  of  these  causes  separately  or  they 
altogether  conduce  to  the  nutrition  of  plants,  an  advantage- 
ous effect  of  the  use  of  lime  on  soil  seems  conclusively  to 
follow.  I  have  endeavored  to  avoid  nice  discriminations  and 
have  stated  my  practice  plainly,  not  from  its  novelty  to  many 
of  your  readers,  but  because  not  only  a  great  waste  is  made 
of  this  article,  but  it  is  believed  that  as  its  average  price  in 
good  condition,  about  ten  cents,  it  may  be  used  to  good  ad- 
vantage. So  also  it  is  with  mortar,  rubbish  of  walls  and 
chimneys,  plaster,  &;c.,  from  old  buildings.  These  (and  it  is 
somewhat  relative  to  this  discussion)  I  have  made  use  of  as  a 
top-dressing  to  low  soil  to  very  good  effect. 

'  It  has  been  observed  that  if  lime  is  a  fertilizer  of  soil,  why 
is  it  that  where  it  abounds  and  often  forms  an  under  stratum 
a  greater  fertility  does  not  prevail  ?  To  this  it  may  be  an- 
swered that  lime  is  a  constituent  principle,  it  is  believed,  in 
all  soil,  and  may  be  supplied,  where  from  experience  a  defi- 
ciency is  found.  But  when  it  superabounds,  as  in  most  other 
things,  excess  may  be  injurious.  In  all  this  more  experience 
is  Avished  for  as  the  only  safe  and  profitable  guide.' 

The  following  is  extracted  from  a  letter  from  Daniel  Buck- 
ley, Esq.,  of  Salisbury,  Pennsylvania,  to  J.  Buel,  Esq.,  pub- 
lished in  Memoirs  of  the  Neiv  York  Board  of  Agriculture^ 
vol.  iii.  p.  124. 

'  The  land  which  I  cultivate,  according  to  M'C lure's  trea- 
tise, is  transition,  composed  of  white  and  yellow  clay  and 
limestone,  much  of  the  latter  appearing  on  the  surface,  in- 
termixed with  flint.  Upon  this. soil  I  have  made  a  liberal 
use  of  lime,  ever  since  the  year  1790,  and  think  I  have  been 
well  rewarded  for  the  expense  and  labor,  by  the  increased 
value  of  my  crops. 

'  The  method  of  applying  the  lime  which  I  have  adopted 
in  common  with  my  neighbors  is,  in  the  first  place,  to  plough 
up  a  sod  field  with  a  strong  team,  in  the  spring  or  fall ; 
harrow  it  the  way  it  is  ploughed,  and  mark  the  field  into  as 
many  squares  as  you  intend  to  put  on  half-bushels,  say  one 
hundred  on  the  acre,  which  will  bring  the  furrows  about 
twenty  feet  apart  each  way,  and  require  fifty  bushels  to  the 
acre.  This  quantity  I  have  found  to  be  most  profitable. 
When  the  lime  is  burnt,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  cool  enough  to 
17# 


198  THE  COMPLETE  FARMEI^ 

handle,  it  ought  to  be  hauled  on  the  land  already  marked, 
and  a  half-bushel  deposited  in  the  centre  of  each  square,  in 
as  compact  a  heap  as  possible.  If  water  is  convenient,  I 
prefer  to  slack  the  lime  immediately,  rather  than  to  WLlt  for 
rain,  as  it  becomes  finer  and  can  be  more  evenly  spread.  As 
soon  as  it  has  slacked,  it  is  immediately  spread  and  well  har- 
rowed. This  method  I  prefer  for  Lidian  corn,  barley,  oats, 
rye,  and  potatoes.  On  all  the  above  crops  1  have  experienced 
a  great  benefit  from  lime  the  first  year  after  its  application. 
With  potatoes  I  add  about  fifteen  two-horse  loads  of  barn- 
yard manure  to  the  acre,  before  planting.  A  second  liming 
is  often  given,  and  much  approved  of,  after  an  interval  of 
three  or  more  years.  This  amalgamates  better,  and  can  be 
more  intimately  mixed  with  the  soil. 

'  There  are  good  farmers  who  differ  as  to  the  quantity  of 
lime  that  is  most  profitably  applied;  some  say  sixty  bushels  on 
the  acre,  some  seventy,  and  some  more.  I  have  applied  one 
hundred  o.i  an  acre  of  limestone  land,  at  a  dressing ;  but 
have  not  been  able  to  discover  any  benefit  from  using  it  thus 
freely,  nor  any  injury  except  in  the  loss  of  lime. 

'  Wheat  seldom  receives  any  benefit  from  lime  until  the 
second  or  third  year  after  it  has  been  applied,  except  it  has 
been  mixed  in  a  compost  of  yard  manure  and  earth.  This 
method  is  much  practised  in  the  lower  counties  of  this  state; 
though  not  by  good  farmers  until  they  have  applied  lime  as 
the  basis  of  melioration.  By  this  management  they  have 
raised  their  lands  from  an  impoverished  state,  produced  by 
injudicious  cropping,  to  such  a  state  of  fertility,  as,  I  am  in- 
formed, to  enable  them  to  fatten  a  bullock  of  six  hundred 
weight  on  an  acre,  and  to  cut  grass  from  the  same  acre  suffi- 
cient to  winter  another. 

'  Sandy  soils  are  greatly  improved  by  the  use  of  lime.  I 
lately  purchased  some  of  that  kind,  which  was  originally 
covered  with  chestnut  timber,  and  was  called  mountain  land. 
It  has  been  cleared  seventy  years;  but  lying  a  distance  frcm 
the  farm  buildings,  had  never  received  any  manure  but  a 
dressing  of  lime.  This  land  I  have  had  repeatedly  farmed 
since  I  owned  it ;  and  although  to  appearance  it  seemed  to 
be  almost  a  caput  mortuum,  with  the  aid  of  ten  or  twelve 
four-horse  loads  of  the  gleanings  of  a  yard  of  a  public  house, 
it  has  produced  as  much,  and  as  good,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  timo- 
thy, and  clover  to  the  acre,  as  any  land  in  the  township  in 
which  it  lays.  I  consider  the  liming  which  it  had  fifty  years 
ago  as  the  principal  cause  of  its  fertility. 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  199 

It  is  a  geneial  opinion  amongst  good  farmers,  that  liming 
should  be  repeated  every  ten  or  fifteen  years,  and  that  the 
increased  crops  richly  compensate  the  expense.  T<  matters 
very  little  how  it  is  applied,  provided  it  is  evenly  spread  im- 
mediately after  it  is  slacked.  If  suffered  to  air-slack,  or  to 
lie  after  it  has  been  water-slacked,  it  re-imbibes  carbonic 
acid,  which  the  fire  had  expelled,  becomes  lumpy,  and  is 
more  difficult  to  be  incorporated  with  the  soil.  Some  spread 
it  upon  the  sod  and  plough  it  under,  and  think  they  have  as 
much  profit  from  it  in  this  way  as  in  any  other.  When  thus 
applied,  it  powerfully  contributes  to  decompose  the  tougher 
fibres  of  the  sod,  and  to  convert  them  into  nutriment  for  the 
crop.' 

Gypsum,  or  Plaster  of  Paris.  It  is  said  that  the  pro- 
perties of  gypsum  as  a  manure  were  first  discovered  in  Ger- 
many by  a  laborer  at  a  quarry  of  that  substance.  In  passing 
across  a  meadow  to  shorten  the  distance  home,  he  observed 
the  luxuriance  of  the  grass  where  he  had  walked,  and  sup- 
posing it  to  be  caused  by  the  dust  of  the  gypsum  from  his  feet 
and  clothes,  made  experiments,  which  verified  his  supposition. 

Great  differences  exist  among  agriculturists  respecting  the 
uses  of  gypsum  and  the  manner  of  its  operation.  Some 
ha,ve  supposed  that  its  efficiency  as  a  manure  is  altogether 
owing  to  its  power  of  attracting  moisture  from  the  air.  But 
Sir  Humphrey  Davy  expressed  an  opinion,  that  but  little 
effect  can  be  produced  by  such  attraction.  '  When  com- 
bined with  water,'  he  observed,  '  it  retains  that  ffuid  too 
powerfully  to  yield  it  to  the  roots  of  the  plant,  and  its  ad- 
hesive attraction  for  moisture  is  inconsiderable ;  •he  small 
quantity  in  which  it  is  used  likewise  is  a  circumstance  un- 
favorable to  this  idea.'  Some  have  supposed  that  gypsum 
assists  in  the  putrefaction  of  animal  substances,  and  the  de- 
composition of  the  manure  in  the  soil.  This  philosopher, 
however,  proved  by  repeated  experiments,  that  it  rather  re- 
tards than  accelerates  putrefaction.  He  likewise  says,  '  In 
examining  the  ashes  of  sainfoin,  clover,  and  rye  grass,  I 
found  that  they  afforded  considerable  quantities  of  gypsum ; 
and  this  substance  probably  is  intimately  combined  as  a  ne- 
cessary part  of  the  woody  fibre.  If  this  be  allowed,  it  is 
easy  to  explain  why  it  operates  in  such  small  quantities ; 
for  the  whole  of  a  cloved  crop,  or  sainfoin  crop,  on  an  acre, 
according  to  my  estimation,  would  afford  by  incireration 
only  three  or  four  bushels  of  gypsum.  The  reason  why 
gypsum  is  not  generally  more  efficacious,  is  probably  because 


200  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

that  most  cultivated  soils  contain  it  in  sufficient  quantities 
for  the  use  of  the  grasses.  In  the  common  course  of  culti- 
vation gypsum  is  furnished  in  the  manure ;  for  it  is  con- 
tamed  in  stable  dung,  and  in  the  dung  of  cattle  fed  on  grass. 
Lord  Dundas  informs  me,  that  having  tried  gj-psum  without 
any  benefit  on  two  of  his  estates  in  Yorkshire,  he  was  in- 
duced to  have  the  soil  examined  for  gypsum,  and  this  sub- 
stance was  found  in  both  soils.  "^ 

It  has  been  made  a  question  whether  burning  and  calcin- 
ing gypsum  make  any  difference  with  regard  to  its  fertilizing 
properties.  This  is  said  to  be  the  practice  among  French 
cultivators,  and  was  likewise  recommended  by  Dr.  Deane. 
But  an  English  writer  on  agriculture  observes  that  '  calcin- 
ing is  not  likely  to  make  any  difference,  because  the  sulphu- 
ric acid  in  gypsum  cannot  be  expelled  by  the  most  violent 
heat  of  the  furnace ;  and  an  experiment  of  Arthur  Young 
countenances  the  assertion  that  the  effects  of  gypsum  are  the 
same,  whether  calcined  or  rough.' 

Dr.  Joseph  E.  Muse,  of  Maryland,  in  an  essay  on  the  sub- 
ject of  gypsum,  and  its  mode  of  operation,  published  in  the 
American  Farmer,  vol.  i.  p.  338,  gives  it  as  his  opinion 
'  that  the  chief,  if  not  the  only  cause  of  the  efficacy  of  gyp- 
sum in  promoting  vegetation,  is  to  be  found  in  its  tendency 
to  become  phosphoric,  and  produced  many  facts  and  deduc- 
tions therefrom,  to  show  that  gypsum  by  exposure  to  the  at- 
mosphere becomes  phosphoric  ;  and  that  phosphorus  exists 
in  vegetables. 

The  late  Dr.  Gorham,  in  a  paper  read  before  a  society  in 
Boston,  and  published  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  v. 
page  153,  observed,  '  When  plaster  of  Paris  is  applied  to  the 
seed  it  stimulates  the  little  root,  the  action  of  the  vessels  is 
thus  increased,  absorption  goes  on  more  rapidly,  and  it  ac- 
quires more  nourishment  for  a  given  time  than  in  ordinary 
circumstances ;  the  consequences  are  a  quick  growth  and 
enlargement  of  the  organs.' 

Colonel  Taylor,  of  Virginia,  observed,  in  substance,  that 
he  sows  of  plaster  from  three  pecks  to  one  bushel  to  the 
acre.  Sown  on  clover  in  the  spring,  it  benefits  it  considera- 
bly. The  best  w^ay  of  using  it  is  in  the  spring  upon  the 
long  manure  of  the  preceding  winter,  to  be  ploughed  in  with 
it.  He  thinks  it  a  valuable  ally,  but  by  no  means  a  substi- 
tute for  manure.  That  there  should  be  intervals  of  two, 
three,  or  four  years  between  applying  it  to  the  same  land. 

*  Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  lecture  vii. 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  201 

That  its  effect  is  graduated  by  the  quantity  of  vegetable 
matter  on  which  it  is  sown.  That  on  closely  grazed  land  it 
does  Httle  good  at  first,  and  repeated  would  become  perni- 
cious;  and  that  it  must  be  united  either  with  long  manure 
of  the  winter,  or  the  ungrazed  vegetable  cover  produced  in 
the  summer.  That  all  crops  are  ultimately  improved  bj  its 
improving  the  soil,  even  when  its  effects  are  not  imniediately 
visible ;  but  he  does  not  recommend  it  as  a  top-dressing,  ex- 
cept for  clover. 

M.  Canolle,  a  French  writer,  observes,  that  plaster,  act- 
ing chietiy  on  the  absorbent  system  of  plants,  its  effects  are 
not  like  those  of  manure  buried  in  the  soil,  which  act  prin- 
cipally on  th  ^  roots.  The  latter,  according  to  their  particu- 
lar nature,  divide,  soften,  enrich,  warm  or  stiffen  ihe  sods 
with  which  they  are  mixed.  The  quantity  of  plaster  spread 
upon  the  land  is  so  trifling  that  it  can  have  little  effect  on 
the  soil.  I  speak  from  experience.  Plaster  buried  in  the 
earth  where  sainfoin  has  been  sown,  has  produced  little  al- 
teration;  whilst  the  same  quantity  of  plaster  spread  over  the 
same  surface  of  sainfoin  has  produced  the  most  beautiful 
vegetation. 

'  From  this  experience,  so  uniform  in  the  application  of 
plaster,  I  am  led  to  believe,  that  one  must  consult  as  w^ell 
the  nature  of  the  soil,  as  the  kind  of  pkmts  to  which  we  ap- 
ply plaster.  Thus,  whatever  may  be  the  soil,  on  which  clo- 
ver, lucerne,  and  sainfoin  naturally  flourish  vigorously,  or 
with  that  vigor  whicli  encourage  us  to  apply  manure,  there 
is  no  risk  in  trying  plaster. 

'  It  is  to  be  remarked,  that  plaster  operates  on  plants  in  a 
direct  ratio  to  the  size  and  number  of  their  leaves.  I  have 
spread  plaster  on  land  where  sainfoin  was  mixed  with  the 
common  grasses  which  compose  our  meadows.  The  growth 
of  the  sainfoin  and  wild  honey-suckle  has  been  beyond  com- 
parison greater  than  that  of  the  common  grasses.  It  is  to 
this  cause  I  attribute  the  failure  of  success  on  grass  ground 
chiefly  filled  with  common  grasses.  I  have  a  field  of  lucerne 
separated  from  a  natural  meadow  only  by  a  brook.  I  have 
greatly  increased  the  lucerne  by  the  plaster,  whilst  the  effect 
of  a  like  quantity  on  the  adjoining  grass  land  was  scarcely, 
if  at  all  perceivable. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  repeated  experiments  that  a 
liberal  application  of  plaster  to  clover,  at  the  time  of  turning 
it  down  and  preparing  for  a  wheat  crop,  is  by  far  the  most 
advantageous  to  the  crop,  and  much  preferable  to  turning  in 


202  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

the  clover  in  the  usual  way,  and  plastering  on  the  surface. 
The  action  of  the  plaster,  thus  excluded  from  atmospheric 
air,  upon  the  clover,  covered  over,  is  instantaneous,  and  the 
putridity  is  so  certain  as  to  cause  considerable  gas,  which  in 
its  passage  through  the  clod  impregnates  it  with  all  its  ma- 
nuring qualities,  and  the  root  of  the  plant  shoots  down  and 
feeds  on  a  bed  of  manure."^ 

A  writer  for  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  ii.  p.  10, 
states  in  substance  as  results  of  his  experience,  that  plaster 
was  found  by  him  to  be  useful  as  manure,  after  having  been 
kept  on  hand  in  a  box  seven  years;  that  its  beneficial  effects 
on  pasture  land  are  very  great.  He  sows  it  on  the  same 
piece  of  ground  every  second  year,  and  thinks  five  or  six 
pecks  to  an  acre  are  sufficient  ;  that  his  pasturing  is  essen- 
tially improved  by  that  application,  producing  nearly  double 
the  quantity  of  food  which  it  formerly  did ;  that  sowing 
plaster  on  his  grazing  land  had  a  tendency  to  destroy  the 
bushes,  by  giving  increased  luxuriance  to  the  grass  ;  that  this 
manure  has  been  found  very  useful  for  flax  and  potatoes,  &c. 

Dr.  Cooper,  editor  of  the  last  Philadelphia  edition  of 
Willich's  Domestic  Encyclopedia,  says,  '  Gypsum  will  not 
answer  beyond  two  and  a  half  bushels  to  the  acre  ;  one  and 
a  half  bushel  is  better.  It  will  not  answer  on  wet  or 
swampy,  or  clayey  soils.  It  should  be  scattered  over  the 
ground  as  a  top-dressing.  Suppose  you  were  asked  if  a 
stone  brought  you  is  gypsum.  1.  Gypsum  can  be  scratched 
by  the  nail,  scraped  by  a  knife,  ground  by  the  teeth.  2.  It 
will  not  dissolve  in  spirits  of  salt  as  limestone  will :  nor  is 
it  half  so  hard  as  limestone.  3.  Its  color  and  crystalline 
appearance  distinguish  it  from  clay  ;  nor  does  it  give  a  clayey 
odor  when  breathed  upon,  unless  clay  be  mixed  with  it.  4. 
Powder  it,  boil  it  to  dryness,  with  four  times  its  weight  of 
pot  or  pearlash.  Wash  out  all  that  the  hot  water  will  dis- 
solve ;  the  remaining  powder  (if  the  stone  be  gypsum)  is  car- 
bonate of  lime.' 

Gypsum  has  been  highly  recommended  as  a  manure  for 
potatoes.  The  potatoes,  just  before  planting,  should  be  wet 
and  rolled  in  pulverized  plaster ;  and  a  handful  of  plaster 
applied  immediately  after  the  first  and  second  hoeing  to  the 
leaves,  and  scattered  over  the  hill. 

A  writer  for  the  Genesee  Farmer,  with  the  signature 
Onondago,  observes,  '  Plaster  is  always  to  be  sown  on  wheat 

*  American  Farmer. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  203 

unless  the  land  is  wanted  for  a  spring  crop  the  next  year, 
after  clover  seed,  at  the  rate  of  one,  two,  or  even  three 
bushels  per  acre.  After  harvest  the  young  clover  ought  not 
to  be  pastured  much,  if  any  ;  the  next  year  the  clover  is 
suffered  to  grow  as  large  as  it  can  be  and  be  well  turned  over, 
which  is  then  done,  the  ground  fallowed  and  the  wheat  sown  ; 
the  next  year  sow  the  clover  seed  and  plaste ",  and  so  on 
from  year  to  year  ad  infinitum,  the  land  always  getting  better, 
as  is  supposed  by  those  who  practise  this  method.  Plaster  we 
think  should  be  sown  in  pasture.  An  old  farmer,  and  one 
who  has  proved  his  skill  by  making  a  fortune  at  the  business, 
and  who  now  tills  nearly  five  hundred  acres,  told  me  that  a 
ton  of  plaster  sown  on  ten  .acres  of  pasture  would  make  it 
yield  as  much  as  fifteen  acres  under  the  like  circumstances 
without  plaster.' 

J.  Spicer,  in  Goodsell's  Farmer,  says,  '  When  I  apply 
plaster  to  corn,  which  I  have  done  for  nearly  three  years 
past,  I  mix  it  with  one-half  leached  ashes,  as  they  are  leached 
for  common  family  use ;  put  it  in  a  cart  and  shovel  and  mix 
it  well.  I  then  put  one  gill  to  the  hill  immediately  ifter  the 
first  hoeing,  and  the  same  thing  over  after  the  second  hoe- 
ing. I  have  tried  the  same  quantity  of  clear  plaster,  side 
and  side,  twice,  and  find  the  mixture  to  produce  the  greatest 
effects.' 

The  Hon.  J.  Lowell,  in  an  article  published  in  the  New 
England  Farmer,  vol.  v.  p.  1,  contradicts  an  idea  which  has 
been  generally  prevalent,  that  gypsum  is  of  no  use  to  lands 
near  the  sea-coast,  and  observes  as  follows  : 

'  I  shall  set  out  with  the  fact,  that  piaster  has  been  used 
with  success  on  lands  on  the  sea-coast  of  France,  where  the 
south-west  wind,  the  prevalent  one  in  summer  in  that  country, 
brings  with  it  the  ocean  air  :  and  in  our  country,  in  Massa- 
chusetts for  example,  the  prevalent  winds  do  not  bring  with 
them  an  atmosphere  filled  with  saline  particles.  It  cannot 
therefore  be  the  vicinity  to  the  sea  which  renders  gypsum 
inert  and  inefficacious  with  us.  The  cause  of  its  inefiicacy 
near  the  sea-coast  must  therefore  be  sought  for  in  something 
else ;  in  the  nature  of  our  soil,  perhaps  already  sufficiently 
imbued  with  the  constituent  parts  of  gypsum,  or  in  our  more 
free  use  of  stable  manure,  which  furnishes  the  plants  with  all 
the  food  they  require. 

'  I  have  been  in  a  constant  and  invariable  course  of  ex- 
periments on  plaster,  and  these  are  the  results.  It  seems 
to  be  of  no  use,  ever,  to  clover,  on  low  meadow  lands ;  of  no 


204  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

uee  to  any  plants  on  a  good  rich,  well  manured  soil.  But  I 
have  three  decisive  proofs  of  its  utility  on  dry,  hilly,  gravelly 
soils. 

'  The  first  I  shall  unention  was  rn  experiment  made  by  the 
late  P'LPH  Smith,  Esq.,  of  Roxbury,  on  a  lofty  hill  of  old 
pasture  land,  he  applied  it  for  several  years,  and  his  own 
conviction  was,  and  it  was  also  the  full  conviction  of  many 
others,  that  it  materially  improved  the  condition  of  his  pas- 
ture. It  was  green  at  an  earlier  period,  and  the  white  clover 
came  into  it  more  generally  and  luxuriantly  than  into  other 
lands  in  the  same  situation. 

'  Seven  years  since,  I  applied  plaster  to  a  newly  laid  down 
field  of  clover,  one-half  of  which  was  a  dry  gravelly  knoll, 
with  very  little  vegetable  soil.  When  it  was  fit  for  cutting, 
I  showed  it  to  the  trustees  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultr- 
ral  society,  and  without  pointing  out  to  them  the  part  to 
which  the  plaster  had  been  apphed,  they  at  once,  on  sight 
of  it,  detected  and  pointed  out  the  superiority  of  the  crop 
on  the  part  to  which  the  gypsu..i  had  been  applied  ;  and 
their  designation  agreed,  by  metes  and  bounds,  with  the 
stakes  I  had  driven,  indicating  the  part  to  which  plaster  had 
been  applied,  and  which  were  then  concealed  by  the  grass. 
This  superior  crop  was  on  a  pure  gravelly  soil,  far  inferior  to 
the  rest,  which  was  a  deep  rich  loam. 

'  This  year  I  had  a  piece  of  clover  in  its  second  year  of 
growth.  It  was  similarly  situated.  Two-thirds  of  it  was  a 
gravelly  thin  soil.  I  cut  the  whole  on  the  10th  day  of  June. 
The  gravelly  part,  owing  to  the  drought,  did  not  yield  more 
than  half  a  ton  to  the  acre ;  the  rich  pprt  an  excellent  crop. 
As  soon  as  the  hay  was  in,  I  gave  a  dressing  of  plaster  to 
the  gravelly  knoll  only^  at  the  rate  of  three  bushels  to  the  acre. 

'  The  effect  has  been  as  great  as  has  ever  been  represented 
to  be  produced  by  gypsum  by  persons  in  the  interior.  The 
second  crop  on  the  gravelly  land  is  far  superior  to  that  on 
a  rich  and  deep  soil  in  the  same  field.  It  may  be  discovered 
at  ten  rods'  distance  ;  and  you  can  mark  by  your  eyes  pre- 
cisely the  line  of  the  ground  to  which  the  plaster  was  ap- 
plied. You,  sir,  have  seen  this  spot  of  half  an  acre,  and  can 
testify  whether  its  effects  are  not  very  obvious.  I  shall  not 
cut  it  for  some  weeks,  unless  compelled  to  it  by  a  second 
drought,  and  I  invite  farmers  to  see  the  effect  of  this  experi- 
ment, not  new,  because  it  is  but  a  repetition  of  an  old  one. 

'  I  am  induced  to  lay  this  subject  before  the  farmers  of 
Norfolk,  Bristol,   Barnstable,   and  Essex,  because  I  am  con- 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  205 

■^■inced  that  the  experiment  of  the  use  of  gypsum  in  this 
quarter  has  not  been  fair  and  full. 

'  It  IS  of  no  service  on  low  lands,  or  on  good  land,  nor  of 
much  use  to  any  products  except  to  clover  and  lucerne  ;  but 
on  sandy  and  gravelly  soils,  and  applied  to  these  plants,  espe- 
cially in  dry  seasons,  I  am  convinced  it  will  prove  valuable. 
I  paid  only  four  dollars  for  ten  bushels,  ground ;  and  I  appli- 
ed only  sixty  cents'  worth  to  this  land,  and  am  convinced, 
that  the  plaster  will  increase  the  value  of  the  second  crop  to 
five  times  the  cost  of  the  application.' 

A  writer  for  the  Genesee  Farmer,  with  the  signature  V. 
W.  S.,  recommends  to  sow  plaster  from  the  box  of  a  wagon, 
driven  slowly  over  the  field  in  which  it  is  to  be  distributed. 
He  sowed  five  and  a  half  bushels  of  plaster  over  four  acres 
of  meadow  in  just  an  hour,  and  performed  his  work  ivell; 
sowed  the  ground  twice  over,  extending  the  cast  each  time 
to  the  track  the  wheels  last  made,  by  which  the  driver  guided 
his  c  jurse  across  the  lot.  The  writer  recommends  a  windy 
day  for  his  purpose,  and  believes  a  yoke  of  cattle  might  be 
preferable  to  a  horse. 

'  It  will  be  readily  perceived  that  while  my  mode  of  sow- 
ing plaster  makes  a  great  saving  of  manual  strength,  the 
great  advantage  derived  from  it  is  in  the  expedition  with 
which  the  process  is  performed.  One  man  and  boy,  in  a  one- 
horee  cart,  can  dress  from  forty  to  sixty  acres  per  day,  thus 
making  a  very  important  saving  of  time  at  a  season  when 
the  farmer  is  obliged  to  husband  closely.  The  injury  of 
driving  a  wagon  over  a  field  of  grain  would  be  but  little,  and 
could  not  be  considered  a  moment,  when  compared  with  the 
value  of  the  time  gained.  Let  any  farmer  try  it,  and  I  am 
satisfied  he  will  never  sow  plaster  from  a  pail  on  foot  again. 

'  I  would  add  here,  that  in  sowing  from  a  wagon  it  will  be 
found  necessary  to  stop  occasionally,  to  pick  up  or  loosen 
the  plaster,  which  becomes  compacted  by  its  motion.  The 
elevated  position  of  the  sower  enables  him  to  make  a  very 
broad  cast,  and  if  advantage  is  taken  of  the  wind,  he  will 
be  able  to  avoid  the  respiration  of  any  great  quantities  of 
dust.' 

Marl  consists  of  calcareous  matter,  clay,  and  sand,  or 
some  two  of  these  earths,  (of  which  lime  or  chalk  is  always 
one)  in  various  proportions.  The  blue  clay  marl  is  free 
from  sand.  Clay  marl  is  also  sometimes  of  a  yellowish 
white,  yellowish  gray,  or  a  brown  or  red  cast.  The  shell 
marl  seldom  contains  clay.  In  schistus  or  stone  marl, 
18 


206  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

sometimes  sand  and  sometimes  clay  preponderates,  general- 
ly the  former.  Tiie  sand  marl,  whether  shell  or  schistus, 
should  be  applied  to  clays  ;  and  clay  marls  to  sands.  In 
both  cases  they  correct  the  defects  of  the  soil,  by  rendering 
it,  in  the  first,  less  adhesive ;  and,  in  the  latter,  less  open  and 
porous. 

The  earths  are  not  the  food  of  plants.  They  constitute 
the  stomach,  analogous  to  the  stomach  of  animals,  in  which 
vegetable  and  animal  matter  is  received,  digested,  and  with 
the  aid  of  the  leaves  [lungs]  assimilated  to  vegetable  chyle 
and  blood.  The  best  soil  for  this  digestive  process  is  that 
in  which  the  three  above-named  earths  are  suitably  blended. 

A  sandy  or  gravelly  soil  is  called  hungry,  because  it  digests 
rapidly,  and  dissipates  the  food  committed  to  its  bosom. 
Hence  green  crops,  or  frequent  manurings,  are  necessary  to 
continue  it  healthy  and  productive.  Such  soils  are  defec- 
tive in  clay  and  calcareous  matter.  Their  texture  may 
therefore  be  improved,  and  their  fertility  increased,  by  the 
application  of  clay  marl ;  or,  what  is  the  same,  by  clay  and 
lime  separately;  though  these  materials  are  found  most  pure 
and  best  blended  in  the  substance  of  marl.  The  quantity 
should  be  proportioned  to  the  natural  deficiency  of  these 
materials  in  the  soil.  From  eight  to  one  hundred  loads  per 
acre  have  been  applied  in  one  or  two  dressings;  and  their 
beneficial  effects  have  been  known  to  continue  thirty  years. 
All  the  sand  soils  of  Norfolk,  England,  have  been  marled, 
[clayed.]  Calcareous  matter,  combined  with  sulphuric  acid, 
[oil  of  vitriol]  is  usefully  applied  to  soils  in  the  form  of  gyp- 
sum, or  plaster  of  Paris ;  as  is  also  powdered  limestone  and 
chalk,  both  calcareous.  I  am  induced  to  believe  that  neither 
wheat  nor  sainfoin  grass  will  thrive  in  a  soil  destitute  of  cal- 
careous matter,  which  is  the  condition  \vith  most  of  our  sands. 

A  stiff,  moist  clay,  is  called  cold,  and  is  unfriendly  to  the 
finer  grasses  as  well  as  grains.  Its  texture  is  too  compact 
to  permit  the  roots  to  extend  freely,  and  its  temperature  too 
cold  to  carry  on  the  digestive  process  sufficiently  rapid  for 
the  plants  which  grow  upon  its  surface.  Sand  and  lime,  or 
silicious  marl,  loosen  its  texture,  render  it  permeable  to 
heat,  &c.,  and  powerfully  assist  to  concoct  the  food  of  vege- 
tables. 

Marl  may  be  known  by  the  most  ordinary  observer.  The 
application  of  a  mineral  acid,  and  even  of  good  vinegar,  will 
cause  an  effervescence.  This  is  the  operation  of  the  acid 
upon  the  lime.     Its  silicious  and  argillaceous  properties  may 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  207 

be  ascertained  by  the  sight  and  feeling,  by  the  aid  of  water, 
or  of  glass.  Sand  subsides  or  settles  quicker  than  clay  in  a 
liquid;  and  will  scratch  glass,  which  clay  will  not. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  in  the  economy  of  nature,  that  the 
indigenous  plants  of  every  country  are  precisely  those  which 
are  best  adapted  to  furnish  the  proper  sustenance  to  its  ani- 
mal population,  and  to  satisfy  its  medicinal  wants.  So  in 
regard  to  our  soils  ;  every  district  generally  affords  the  means 
of  producing  fertility.  Hence  the  clay  marls  generally  un- 
derlay sands ;  and  shell  and  sand  marls  most  abound  in  the 
neighborhood  of  clays.  And  in  addition  to  the  variety  of 
fossil  substances  which  are  calculated  to  increase  fertility, 
every  thing  that  grows  upon  the  earth,  every  particle  of  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  matter,  is  reduced  to  air  and  water  by  the 
chemical  operations  of  nature,  and  in  these  forms  become  the 
food  of  new  plants,  to  nourish  animals.  It  is  a  truth  calculat- 
ed to  teach  humility,  that  the  animal,  the  vegetable,  and  the 
putrid  mass  of  dung,  are  found  on  chemical  analysis  to  be 
very  nearly  alike,  and  that,  in  the  natural  order  of  things, 
they  constantly  nourish,  feed,  and  produce  each  other. 
'  Nothing  is  nourishment  for  a  vegetable  but  what  enters  into 
the  permanent  composition  of  a  vegetable.  Nothing  is  nou- 
risl  merit  for  an  animal  but  what  was  originally  a  vegetable.' 
Man  is  enjoined  to  earn  his  bread  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow. 
He  finds  the  most  noble  incitements  to  duty  scattered  around 
him,  and  he  is  seldom  disappointed  in  obtaining  the  rewards, 
competence  and  health,  which  industry  promises  to  her  vota- 
ries. Bot  I  have  another  remark  to  make  as  to  the  food  of 
vegetables.  How  scrupulously  careful  is  the  farmer  of  his 
grain,  hay,  and  roots,  which  are  destined  to  nourish  and  fat- 
ten his  animals;  and  yet  how  thoughtless  and  inattentive  as 
to  the  food  of  his  plants  !  Vegetable  and  animal  substances 
are  suffered  to  waste  in  his  fields  and  yards,  unmindful  of  the 
havoc  which  the  rains,  winds,  and  sun,  are  daily  making 
upon  them ;  while  a  moiety  of  his  fertilizing  materials,  the 
urine  of  his  stock,  is  altogether  lost.  He  will  not  suffer  the 
flocks  of  his  neighbors  to  rob  his  own  of  their  food  ;  yet  he 
sees,  with  but  feeble  efforts  to  prevent  it,  his  plants  plundered 
by  pestiferous  weeds  of  the  food  which  is  essential  to  their 
health  and  vigor. 

'To  find  the  composition  of  a  marl,  pour  a  few  ounces  of 
diluted  muriatic  acid  into  a  Florence  flask ;  place  them  in  a 
scale,  and  let  them  be  balanced  :  then  reduce  a  few  ounces 
of  dry  marl   into  pov/der ;  and  let  this  powder  be  carefully 


208  THE    COMPLETE  FARMER 

and  gradually  thrown  into  the  flask,  until,  after  repeated  ad- 
ditions, no  farther  effervescence  is  perceived.  Let  the  re- 
mainder of  the  powdered  marl  be  weighed,  by  which  the 
quantity  projected  will  be  known.  Let  the  balance  be  then 
restored.  The  difference  of  weight  between  the  quantity 
projected  and  that  requisite  to  restore  the  balance,  will  show 
the  weight  of  air  lost  during  effervescence.  [That  air  pro- 
ceeds from  the  calcareous  earth  alone,  which  contnins  forty- 
four  per  cent,  of  this  carbonic  acid  air.  Suppose  five  hundred 
grains  of  marl  lose  forty-four  grains  by  the  escape  of  air, 
then  that  marl  contained  one  hundred  grains,  or  one-fifth  of 
its  whole  weight,  of  limestone. — T.  C]  If  the  loss  amount 
to  twenty  or  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  quantity  of  marl 
projected,  the  marl  assayed  is  calareous  marl,  or  marl  rich 
in  calcareous  earth.  Clayey  marls,  or  those  in  which  the 
argillaceous  ingredient  prevails,  lose  only  eight  or  ten  per 
cent,  of  their  weight  by  this  treatment,  and  sandy  marls 
about  the  same  proportion.  The  presence  of  much  argilla- 
ceous earth  may  be  judged  by  drying  the  marl,  after  being 
washed  with  spirit  of  salt,  when  it  will  harden  and  form  a 
brick. 

'To  determine  with  still  greater  precision  the  quantity  of 
calcareous  earth  in  marl,  let  the  solution  in  muriatic  acid 
be  filtered  and  mixed  with  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  potash, 
till  no  farther  precipitation  appear.  Let  the  sediment  sub- 
side ;  wash  it  well  with  water ;  lay  it  on  a  filter,  previously 
weighed,  and  dry  it.  The  weight  of  the  dry  mass  will  show 
how  much  carbonate  of  lime  the  quantity  of  marl  submit- 
ted to  experiment  contained.      See  Kirwan  on  Manures. 

'  The  quantity  necessary  to  be  used,  varies  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  soil ;  but  the  utmost  caution  is  requisite, 
because  if  too  large  a  portion  be  scattered  on  the  land,  it 
cannot  be  easily  removed,  and  if  too  little  be  employed,  the 
deficiency  may  be  readily  supplied.  On  sandy,  gravelly,  or 
light  soils,  it  will  be  advisable  to  spread  os  much  as  will 
form  a  thick  coat,  in  order  to  bind  and  stiffen  the  ground. 
But,  of  whatever  nature  the  land  may  be,  the  most  judicious 
cultivators  recommend  such  a  portion  to  be  laid  on  it,  as  will 
form  a  thin  coat  over  the  whole  surface. 

'  The  proper  season  for  marling  is  the  summer  ;  as  this 
kind  of  manure  is  then  perfectly  dry,  and  not  only  lighter, 
but  also  more  easily  reduced  to  a  powder.  Marl,  however, 
may  be  advantageously  spread  during  the  winter  frosts ;  as 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  209 

in  the  latter  season,  there  are  fev/  opportunities  of  perform- 
ing other  labors  of  the  field. 

'  Previously  to  marling,  the  land  ought  to  be  diligently 
cleared  from  all  weeds,  and  rendered  level,  both  with  the 
brake  and  the  common  harrow,  so  that  the  marl  may  be 
equally  spread  on  the  surface,  where  it  should  be  suffered  to 
lie  during  the  winter.  In  the  month  of  February,  [March, 
or  April,]  and  in  dry  weather,  it  will  be  proper  to  draw  a 
bush-harrow,  well  weighted,  over  the  land,  that  the  marl 
may  be  uniformly  distributed;  but,  as  this  manure  is  very 
ponderous,  and  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  if  injudi- 
ciously ploughed  in,  it  has  been  suggested  to  turn  it  into  an 
ebb-furroiD  for  the  first  crop  :  during  the  growth  of  the  latter, 
the  marl  will  incorporate  with  and  become  a  part  of  the 
soil,  from  which  it  does  not  readily  separate.  So  perma- 
nent, indeed,  are  its  fertilizing  properties,  that  if  land  be  pro- 
perly marled,  it  will  continue  arable  for  the  space  of  twelve 
or  fourteen  years ;  and,  for  pasture,  during  a  much  longer 
period. 

'  A  good  artificial  marl  may  be  prepared  by  mixing  equal 
quantities  of  pure  clay  and  lime,  in  alternate  layers,  so  as  to 
form  a  heap,  which  should  be  exposed  to  the  winter  frost  : 
this  compound  is  well  calculated  for  light  lands  ;  but  if  the 
soil  be  strong  and  heavy,  it  will  be  necessary  to  substitute 
loam  and  sand  for  the  clay.  Such  compositions  may  be 
usefully  employed  where  marl  is  not  easily  procured;  as 
they  will  amply  repay  the  labor  bestowed  on  mixing  them, 
being  little  inferior  to  the  genuine  calcareous  earth.' — Domes- 
tic Encyclopedia. 

An  English  writer  on  agriculture  observes  that  'whoever 
finds  marl  finds  a  mine  of  great  value.  It  is  one  of  the  best 
and  most  general  manures  in  nature ;  proper  for  all  soils, 
and  particularly  so  for  clay.'  It  is  usually  found  under 
moss  or  peat,  in  low  sunken  lands,  and  especially  nigh  the 
sea  or  large  rivers.  It  has  been  sometimes  discovered  by 
ant-hills,  as  those  insects  bring  up  small  pieces  of  shells  from 
their  holes. 

Peat  is  a  well  known  substance,  used  both  for  manure  and 
for  fuel.  In  its  natural  state  peat  is  of  but  little  or  no  ser- 
vice as  manure,  but  by  exposing  it  to  the  effects  of  fermenta- 
tion it  becomes  very  useful  as  food  for  plants.  In  its  unfer- 
mented  state  it  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  tannin, 
which  is  a  powerful  astringent,  resisting  all  approaches  to 
putrefaction  ;  and  is  impregnated  with  acids  injurious  to 
18# 


210  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

vegetation,  which  can  be  expelled  by  fermentation  with  barn- 
yard manure,  and  other  suitable  substances. 

The  following  method  of  preparing  peat  for  manure  is 
extracted  from  a  small  treatise  by  lord  Meadowbanks,  which 
was  printed  and  distributed  gratis  among  the  Scottish  pea- 
santry, and  has  been  highly  approved  of  both  by  practical 
and  scientific  cultivators. 

'  Let  the  peat-moss,  of  which  compost  is  to  be  formed,  be 
thrown  out  of  the  pit  for  some  weeks  or  months,  in  order  to 
lose  its  redundant  moisture.  By  this  means  it  is  rendered 
the  lighter  to  carry,  and  less  compact  and  weighty,  when 
made  up  with  fresh  dung  for  fermentation  ;  and  accordingly, 
less  dung  is  required  for  the  purpose,  than  if  the  preparation 
is  made  with  peat  taken  recently  from  the  pit.  The  peat 
taken  from  near  the  surface,  or  at  a  considerable  depth,  an- 
swers equally  well.  And  the  more  compact  the  peat,  and 
the  fitter  to  prove  good  fuel,  so  much  the  more  promising  it 
is  to  be  prepared  for  manure. 

'  Take  the  peat-moss  to  a  dry  spot,  convenient  for  con- 
structing a  dunghill,  to  serve  the  field  to  be  manured.  Lay 
the  cart-loads  of  it  in  two  rows,  and  of  the  dung  in  a  row 
betwixt  them.  The  dung  thus  lies  on  the  area  of  the  com- 
post dunghill,  and  the  rows  of  peat  should  be  near  enough 
each  other,  that  workmen  in  making  up  the  compost  may 
be  able  to  throw  them  together  by  the  spade.  In  making 
up,  let  the  workmen  begin  at  one  end  ;  and  at  the  extremity 
of  the  row  of  dung,  (which  should  not  extend  quite  so  far  at 
that  end  as  the  rows  of  peat  on  each  side  of  it  do,)  let  them 
lay  a  bottom  of  peat,  six  inches  deep,  and  fifteen  feet  wide. 
Then  thiow  forward,  and  lay  about  ten  ir.ches  of  dung  above 
the  bottom  of  peat  ;  then  four  or  five  of  dung ;  and  then 
cover  it  over  with  peat  at  the  end  where  it  was  begun,  at 
the  two  sides,  and  above.  The  compost  should  not  be 
raised  above  four  feet  and  a  half  high,  otherwise  it  is  apt  to 
press  too  heavily  on  the  under  parts,  and  check  the  fermen- 
tation :  unless  the  peat,  when  dry,  be  very  puffy  and  light, 
and  then  a  much  greater  height  is  desirable.  Neither  should 
it  be  much  lower,  otherwise  it  will  prove  wanting  in  the 
compactness,  and  soon  also,  if  the  weather  is  very  dry,  in 
the  moisture  required  for  the  ingredients  of  which  it  con- 
sists to  act  chemically  on  each  other.  When  a  beginning 
is  thus  made,  the  workmen  will  proceed  working  backwards, 
and  adding  to  the  column  of  compost  as  they  are  furnished 
with  the  three  rows  of  materials  directed  to  be  laid  down  for 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  211 

them.  They  must  take  care  not  to  tread  on  the  compost, 
or  render  it  too  compact ;  and  of  consequence,  in  propor- 
tion as  the  peat  is  wet,  it  should  be  made  up  in  lumps,  and 
not  much  mashed  or  broken. 

'  In  mild  weather,  seven  cart-loads  of  common  farm-yard 
dung,  tolerably  fresh  made,  is  sufficient  for  twenty-one  cart- 
loads of  peat-moss  ;  but  in  cold  weather,  a  larger  proportion 
of  dung  is  desirable  ;  at  least  it  is  prudent  to  omit  putting 
any  peat  between  the  two  upper  layers  of  dung,  and  rather 
thicken  the  cutcr  coating  with  peat.  It  is  also  proper  in 
winter,  if  ground  with  a  dry  bottom  can  be  conveniently  em- 
ployed for  the  purpose,  to  increase  greatly  the  breadth  of  the 
dunghill,  which,  in  that  case,  may  be  done  without  any  limit, 
by  adding,  all  round  the  dunghill,  circles,  consisting  of  layers 
of  dung  and  peat,  of  seven  feet  in  breadth.  And  if  the  mass 
of  the  dunghill  is  thus  enlarged,  there  is  little  occasion  to 
exceed  the  proportion  of  dung  recommended  for  making  up 
to  prepare  in  the  milder  season ;  especially  if  a  covering  of 
coarse  vegetables  of  any  sort,  such  as  waste  hay  or  straw, 
rushes,  broom,  or  furze,  or  brushwood  of  evergreens,  is 
thrown  over  the  dunghill.  In  fact,  a  covering  of  this  sort  is 
scarce  less  useful  in  summer  to  prevent  the  escape  of  mois- 
tur3,  than  in  winter  to  exclude  cold. 

'  To  every  twenty-eight  cart-ioads  of  the  compost,  when 
made  up,  it  is  of  use  to  throw  on  above  it  a  cart-load  of 
ashes,  either  made  from  coal,  peat,  or  wood ;  or  if  these  can- 
not be  had,  half  the  quantity  of  slacked  lime  may  be  used, 
the  more  finely  powdered  the  better.  But  these  additions 
are  in  nowise  essential  to  the  general  success  of  the  com- 
post, provided  a  sufficiency  of  time  is  allowed  to  the  prepa- 
ration to  compensate  for  the  want  of  them. 

'  The  dung  to  be  used  should  either  have  been  recently 
made,  or  kept  fresh  by  compression;  as  by  the  treading  of 
cattle  or  swine,  or  by  carts  passing  over  it.  And  if  there  is 
little  or  no  litter  in  it,  a  smaller  quantity  will  serve,  pro- 
vided any  spongy  vegetable  matter  is  added  at  making  up  the 
compost,  as  fresh  weeds,  the  rubbish  of  a  stack-yard,  pota- 
to-shaws,  sawings  of  timber,  &c.  And  as  some  sorts  of 
dung,  even  when  fresh,  are  much  more  advanced  in  decom- 
position than  others,  it  is  material  to  attend  to  this ;  for  a 
much  less  proportion  of  such  dung,  especially  if  abounding 
in  animal  matter,  as  is  less  advanced,  will  serve  for  the  com- 
post, provided  care  is  taken  to  keep  the  mass  sufficiently 
open,  either  by  a  mixture  of  the  above-mentioned  substances, 


212  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

or,  if  these  are  wanting,  by  adding  the  peat  piecemeal,  that 
is,  first  mixing  it  up  in  the  usual  proportion  of  three  to  one 
of  dung,  and  then,  after  a  time,  adding  an  equal  quantity, 
more  or  less,  of  peat.  The  dung  of  this  character  of  great- 
est quantity  is  shamble-dung,  with  which,  under  the  above 
precautions,  six  times  the  quantity  of  peat,  or  more,  may  be 
prepared.  The  same  holds  as  to  pigeon-dung  and  other 
fowl-dung  ;  and  to  a  certain  extent,  also,  as  to  that  which  is 
collected  from  towns,  and  made  by  animals  that  feed  on 
grains,  refuse  of  distilleries,  &c. 

'  The  compost,  after  it  is  made  up,  gets  into  a  general 
heat,  sooner  or  later,  according  to  the  weather  and  the  con- 
dition of  the  dung  ;  in  summer,  in  ten  days  or  sooner  ;  in 
winter,  not  perhaps  for  many  weeks,  if  the  cold  is  severe. 
It  always,  however,  has  been  found  to  come  on  at  last ;  and 
in  summer,  it  sometimes  rises  so  high  as  to  be  mischievous, 
by  consuming  the  materials,  (fire-fanging.)  In  that  season, 
a  stick  should  be  kept  in  it  in  different  parts,  to  pull  out  and 
feel  now  and  then  ;  for  if  it  approaches  to  blood-heat,  it 
should  either  be  watered  or  turned  over;  and  on  such  an 
occasion,  advantage  may  be  taken  to  mix  with  it  a  little 
fresh  peat.  The  heat  subsides,  after  a  time,  and  with  great 
variety,  according  to  the  weather,  the  dung,  and  the  perfection 
of  the  making  up  of  the  compost ;  which  then  may  be 
allowed  to  remain  untouched,  until  within  three  or  four 
weeks  of  using,  when  it  should  be  turned  over,  upside  down 
and  outside  in,  and  all  lumps  broken  :  then  it  comes  into  a 
second  heat,  but  soon  cools,  and  is  fit  to  be  taken  out  for  use. 
In  this  state  the  whole,  except  bits  of  the  old  decayed  wood, 
appears  a  black  free  mass,  and  spreads  like  garden-mould. 
Use  it,  weight  for  weight,  as  farm-yard  dung  ;  and  it  will 
be  found,  in  a  course  of  cropping,  fully  to  stand  the  com- 
parison.' 

Many  other  articles  are  useful  for  manure,  such  as  blood, 
ofTals  of  animals,  hair,  refuse  feathers,  woolen  rags,  hoofs 
and  horns  of  cattle,  sheep,  &;c.  ;  bones  of  all  kinds,  pounded, 
broken,  or  ground,  at  the  rate  of  sixty  bushels  to  the  acre ; 
raw  skins  ;  fish  of  all  kinds  ;  swamp  mud,  river  mud,  pond 
mud  and  sea  mud,  wood  ashes,  turfs,  sea-weeds,  moss  mixed 
with  dung  in  holes — good  for  potatoes,  turf  from  highways, 
&c. ;  shells  of  shell-fish ;  scrapings  of  streets  and  back 
yards ;  rubbish  of  old  houses,  and  earth  which  has  long 
been  under  cover.  Both  of  these  collect  and  retain  nitre. 
Old  brine  of  salted  meat  or  fish,  which  contains,  besides  salt, 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  213 

some  blood,  oil,  &c.,  in  composts.  Sea  water,  which  con- 
tains other  substances  besides  water  and  salt,  whijh  are  ft 
for  nourishing  plants.  Soap-suds,  replete  with  a  prepared 
food  for  plants ;  excellent  for  watering  gardens  in  dry 
weather.  None  of  this  should  ever  be  lost.  If  the  garden 
be  distant  or  wet  it  may  enrich  the  dung  heap.  Water  ia 
the  hollows  of  farm-yards.  Instead  of  suffering  this  liquor 
to  soak  into  the  earth,  it  should  be  taken  up  by  straw  litter, 
or  some  absorbent  substance  thrown  into  it,  or  carried  out  in 
a  water-cart,  and  sprinkled  over  land  which  needs  it,  in  the 
manner  in  which  streets  are  watered  in  cities. 

In  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  ix.  p.  245,  was  published 
an  article  written  by  Hon.  John  Lowell,  to  the  Hon.  Thomas 
L.  Winthrop,  president  of  the  Massachusetts  society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Agriculture,  from  which  the  following  is  ex- 
tracted : 

'  A  few  years  since,  the  Hon.  William  Ellis,  of  Dedham, 
recommended  to  me  the  use  of  the  head  and  feet  bones  of 
oxen,  as  a  highly  valuable  manure  on  meadow  lands.  He 
said  he  had  observed  in  passing,  that  I  had  grounds  remarka- 
bly well  adapted  for  this  manure.  I,  however,  neglected  this 
hint,  though  I  constantly  kept  it  in  mind,  until  the  last  year, 
when,  seeing  an  immense  load  of  the  heads  of  oxen  passing 
by,  I  inquired  of  the  owner  for  what  purpose  he  was  cart- 
ing these  materials,  and  he  answered  me  to  the  following 
facts,  viz. :  that  he  came  down  a  distance  of  eight  miles 
with  an  empty  team,  and  was  carrying  back  a  load,  which 
CGSt  him  two  dollars,  to  put  on  his  meadow  land.  I  found 
it  was  no  new  experiment  with  him,  and  that  he  came  often 
for  that  purpose. 

'  I  made  the  experiment.  Its  success  surpassed  all  his  de- 
scriptions. The  manure  brought  in  new  grasses.  It  en- 
couraged and  invigorated  the  old. 

'I  am  aware  it  is  only  of  limited  application,  but  it  is  no 
trifling  thing  to  render  useful  an  article  formerly  thrown 
away.  We  know  so  little  of  the  philosophy  of  .manure,  that 
I  shall  not  speak  positively  on  the  subject.  All  I  shall  say 
is,  that  there  is  much  animal  matter  still  adhering  to  the 
bones,  and  animal  matter  has  been  found  by  experience  to 
promote  the  growth  of  vegetables. 

'  The  mode  of  application  is  to  break  them  up  with  a 
sledge,  or  with  the  back  of  an  axe,  and  then  to  press  them 
below  the  surface  by  a  rammer  or  beetle.  The  only  point 
to  which  I  offer  my  testimony  is  that  the  effetts  are  much 


214  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

greater  than  an  equal  quantity  of  horse  and  cow  dung.     This 
may  be  relied  on.' 


FEXCES.  The  kinds  of  fence  and  manner  of  fencing 
should  vary  according  to  the  difference  of  soils  and  the 
kinds  of  materials  for  feacing.  In  new  lands  logs  are  and 
ought  to  be  most  used.  When  built  of  white  pine,  they  will 
last  about  twenty  years.  Other  sorts  of  Avood,  such  as  pitch 
pine,  hemljck,  ash,  oak,  &c.,  will  endure  for  a  considerable 
time  if  not  placed  too  near  the  ground.  If  a  fence  be  made 
partly  of  white  pine  and  partly  of  other  wood,  the  former 
should  be  laid  nearest  to  the  ground.  If  logs  are  pealed 
they  will  last  the  longer  in  fences. 

It  has  been  practised  by  soins  farmers  to  make  posts  for 
fences  very  durable  by  the  following  simple  process.  They 
bore  a  hole  in  that  part  of  the  post  which,  when  set,  will  be 
just  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  with  such  a  slope  as  will 
carry  it  downward  an  inch  or  two.  They  then  fill  the  hole 
with  salt,  which  will  preserve  the  timber  a  long  time  from 
decay. 

In  many  parts  of  the  country  posts  and  rails  will  be  found 
the  cheipest  materials  far  fence.  In  making  fences  of  this 
description,  it  is  advised  by  Mr.  Preston,  of  Stockport,  Penn- 
sylvania, to  set  the  posts  with  the  top  parts  in  the  ground, 
and  he  asserts  that  they  will,  in  that  position,  last  three  or 
four  times  as  long  as  when  they  are  set  with  the  butt  ends 
down.  He  advises,  also,  in  making  fences,  always  to  place 
the  rails  with  the  heart  side  up. 

The  best  timber  for  rails,  according  to  Dr.  Deane,  is  red 
cedar.  It  is  easy  to  split,  light  to  carry  and  handle,  suffi- 
ciently strong,  and  the  mDst  durable  of  any.  In  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Society  of  Arts,  in  England,  there  is  an  ac- 
count which  states  in  substance  that  posts  of  oak,  and  others 
of  chestnut,  were  set  down  in  Somersetshire,  where  they  had 
to  undergo  repairs  in  eighteen  years.  The  oak  posts  were 
then  found  to  be  unserviceable,  and  the  chestnut  very  little 
worn.  The  oak  posts  were  renewed,  the  chestnut  remained, 
and  in  twenty-five  years  afterwards  they  were  not  so  much 
rotted  as  the  oak. 

If  the  lower  ends  of  posts  are  scorched  in  a  hot  flame  be- 
fore they  are  put  into  the  ground,  they  will  last  the  longer. 
Some  recommend  soaking  them  in  sea-water  to  keep  them 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  215 

from  rotting.  The  posts  should  be  set  at  least  two  feet  in 
the  ground.  Some  farmers  cut  their  posts  so  long,  and  mor- 
tise them  in  such  a  manner,  that  they  can  turn  them  upside 
down,  when  the  lower  ends  become  rotten. 

It  is  said  in  the  Barnstable  Journal,  that  '  deacon  Wins- 
loAV  Martin  has  on  his  farm  a  kind  of  fence,  which  for  dura- 
bility and  beauty  can  hardly  be  exceeded.  On  each  side  of 
the  road  adjacent  his  dwelling  are  rows  of  large  button- 
wood  trees,  set  ten  or  twelve  feet  asunder.  Into  these,  when 
young,  cedar  rails  were  inserted,  as  into  common  posts.  As 
the  trees  increased  in  size,  the  wood  formed  closely  around 
the  ends  of  the  rails,  and  firmly  secured  them  in  their  places. 
It  is  certainly  a  durable  and  cheap  fence,  because  it  will  re- 
quire no  repairs  at  least  for  one  generation,  and  is  moreover 
constantly  increasing  in  value.  Were  our  roads  lined  with 
this  kind  of  fence,  it  would  add  not  a  little  to  the  beauty  of 
the  country  and  the  comfort  of  the  traveller.' 

The  Farmer's  Guide  observes,  that '  post  and  rail  fences  and 
board  fences  are  very  good  where  the  soil  is  dry.  In  a  wet 
soil,  the  posts  will  be  moved  by  frost.  Red  cedar,  locust, 
and  chestnut,  are  best.  Butternut,  black  walnut,  and  oak, 
are  pretty  good,  lasting  about  fifteen  years.  For  the  rails, 
cedar  is  best,  lasting  perhaps  an  age.  If  timber  is  scarce, 
and  the  ground  is  level  and  free  from  stones,  post  and  rail 
fences,  set  in  a  bank  of  the  earth  of  two  small  ditches, 
thrown  up  together,  ought  to  be  preferred.  If  the  posts  are 
too  small  to  have  holes  m.ade  through  them,  the  rails  may  be 
flattened  at  the  ends,  and  fastened  to  the  posts  with  spikes, 
or  with  wooden  pins  well  secured.' 

When  ground  is  wholly  subdued,  and  the  stumps  of  its 
original  trees  quite  rotted  out,  stone  walls,  properly  made, 
are  the  best  and  cheapest  fences.  On  hard,  sandy  or  gravelly 
soil,  a  wall  will  stand  many  years  without  repairing.  On  a 
clay  or  miry  soil,  the  foundation  should  be  laid  in  a  trench, 
nearly  as  low  as  the  earth  freezes.  But  a  wall  of  flat  or 
square  shaped  stones  will  stand  pretty  well  on  any  soil  on 
the  surface. 

A  writer  for  the  Genesee  Farmer  gives  the  following  di- 
rections for  '  Planting  Posts  for  Garden  Fences,  &c.' 

'  Instead  of  filling  the  holes  up  with  the  earth  taken  out 
in  digging  them,  I  would  recommend  filling  in  around  the 
posts  leached  ashes  instead  of  common  earth,  and  topping 
oflf  with  five  or  six  inches  of  unleached  ashes  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground ;  for  it   is  generally  between  loind  and 


216  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

water,  as  the  sailors  term  it,  that  garden  posts  begin  to  de- 
cay. My  reason  for  recommending  ashes  is,  that  I  have  fre- 
quently found  pieces  of  board,  hoops,  and  strives  buried  under 
hea^  s  of  leached  ashes,  which  had  lain  there  many  years, 
and  were  quite  as  sound  as  when  first  buried.  No  doubt 
miry  of  your  readers  have  noticed  the  same,  in  removing 
ol^'  ash  heaps  near  potash  works.' 


HEDGES.  In  some  soils,  situations,  and  circumstances 
hedge  fences  will  be  found  most  advisable  and  economical. 
The  following  remarks  on  this  subject,  by  the  Hon.  John 
Lowell,  were  published  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  x. 
p.  339. 

'  It  is  not  my  intention  to  recommend  live  hedges  for  this 
rocky  part  of  the  United  States.  Our  own  stones  furnish 
the  best  divisions  we  could  ask  for  or  desire ;  and  on  most 
farms  the  removal  of  them  from  the  soil  would  be  economi- 
cal, and  the  placing  them  as  partitions  for  fields  is  the  cheap- 
est and  most  natural  mode  of  disposing  of  them.  Still,  in 
New  England,  there  are  extensive  tracts  of  country  of  allu- 
vial or  diluvial  soil  in  which  no  rocks  arc  found,  and  in 
which  a  stone  wall  could  not  be  obtained  without  great  ex- 
pense. Such  is  the  state  of  the  greater  part  of  the  old  colo- 
ny below  Plymouth,  and  of  some  parts  of  the  county  of 
Middlesex.  But  wherever  wood  fences  are  required  it  may 
be  useful  to  substitute  live  hedges.  The  question  is,  what 
has  been  our  experience  as  to  the  comparative  value  of  the 
various  plants  employed  in  New  England  for  live  hedges  ? 
In  the  remarks  which  follow,  I  beg  it  may  be  understood, 
that  I  do  not  intend  to  oppose  the  opinions  expressed  by  a 
learned  and  judicious  horticulturist,  judge  Buel;  nor  those 
expressed  by  practical  gentlemen  at  the  south  ;  but  simoly 
the  results  of  my  own  personal  experience  and  observation, 
during  the  last  eighteen  years,  since  the  subject  of  live 
hedges  attracted  the  attention  of  our  cultivators.  Nothing 
which  I  may  say  can  in  any  degree  impeach  the  correctness 
of  their  statements,  because  the  causes  of  the  failure  of  cer- 
tain plants  with  us  may  have  been  entirely  local.  This 
would  not  appear  remarkable,  when  we  consider  that  the  lo- 
cust {robinia  pseudocacia)  is  absolutely  kiterdicted  to  us, 
while  it  is  the  favorite  and  one  of  the  most  valuable  trees 
of  the  south. 


AND    RUR^L    ECONOMIST.  217 

'  Suffice  it  then  to  say,  that  the  Virginia  thorn,  intro- 
duced here  by  Mr.  Quincy,  with  whom  it  appeared  to  suc- 
ceed, is  in  most  cases  utterly  useless  as  a  fence.  This  is 
chiefly  owing  to  the  ravages  of  a  worm  at  its  root ;  whether 
it  be  the  same  which  attacks  the  apple  and  the  quince,  is  a 
point  not  settled.  The  same  objection  is  applicable  to  the 
English  hawthorn.  And  to  this  fatal  one  is  superadded  an- 
other, the  appearance  of  a  fungus  of  a  yellow  color  on  the 
leaves,  which  utterly  disfigures  them  and  strips  them  of  their 
foliage  in  September.  The  s;leditschia  triacanthos  is  not 
suited  for  hedges  with  us.  If  left  to  grow  they  soon  grow  out 
of  all  reach,  if  checked  they  are  winter-killed.  We  are  in- 
debted wholly  and  entirely  to  the  experiments  of  Eze- 
kiel  Hersy  Derby,  Esq.  for  the  possession  of  a  plant,  the 
buckthorn,  {rhamnus  catharticus,)  which,  from  ten  years' 
trial,  seems  to  afford  every  desirable  quality  for  a  healthy, 
beautiful,  and  effectual  hedge.  W«.  refer  the  public  to  Mr. 
Derby's  account  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  for  particulars. 

'  I  can  only  say,  and  I  feel  it  a  duty  to  say,  that  I  have 
tried  this  plant  for  six  years.  It  is  hardy  and  rapid  in  its 
growth,  of  im^jenctrable  thickness,  and  so  far  as  that  extent 
of  experiment  enables  me  to  judge,  not  subject  to  any  dis- 
ease, or  the  visitation  of  any  insect  whatever.  As  it  is  very 
provoking  as  well  as  expensive  to  cultivators  to  be  led 
astray,  and  to  find  after  five  or  ten  years  that  they  have 
been  deceived,  they  would  do  well  to  examine  the  growing 
hedges  of  the  buckthorn,  or  rhamnus  cafharticus,  at  Mr. 
Derby's,  Mr.  Brooks',  Dr.  Jackson's,  or  at  mv  place. 

'JOHN  LOWELL.' 

The  following  is  extracted  from  a  notice  of  Mr.  Derby  of 
the  cultivation  and  uses  of  the  buckthorn,  referred  to  above 
by  Mr.  Lowell.  '  You  will  perceive  that  Miller  represents 
it  as  a  shrub  growing  about  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  high. 
The  tree  from  which  my  plants  were  raised  formerly  stood 
in  the  garden  of  the  venerable  Dr.  Holyoke  of  this  place, 
who  used  the  berries  for  medicinal  purposes,  and  was  as  large 
as  any  of  our  common  apple-trees.  He  assures  me  he  was 
induced  at  last  to  cut  it  down,  as  it  shaded  so  much  of  his 
garden.  I  was  so  pleased  with  the  healthy  and  clean  ap- 
pearance of  the  tree,  and  the  next  spring  observing  several 
young  plants  in  the  adjoining  garden  belonging  to  my  bro- 
ther, raised,  from  seed  dropped  in  the  autumn,  that  I  was  in- 
duced to  transplant  them  to  a  nursery,  where  they  grew  with 
great  rapidity. 
19 


218  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

'  After  trying  several  kinds  of  trees  for  the  purpose  of 
making  a  hedge  without  much  success,  I  was  induced  to  try 
this,  which  has  afforded  a  most  beautiful  fence,  so  much  so 
as  to  attract  the  attention  of  every  person  who  has  seen  it. 
It  divides  my  garden,  is  about  three  hundred  feet  in  length, 
the  plants  set  nearly  a  foot  apart,  is  fixe  feet  high,  and  two 
feet  wide  at  top,  which  is  cut  nearly  level.  It  shoots  early 
in  the  spring,  makes  a  handsome  appearance,  and  continues 
its  verdure  till  very  late  in  the  fall.  It  has  not  so  much 
spine  as  either  the  English  or  American  hawthorn,  but  I 
think  sufficient  to  protect  it  from  cattle.  The  plant  bears 
the  knife  or  shears  remarkably,  and  makes  as  close  and  tight 
a  fence  as  either  of  the  others,  and  is  not  subject  to  blight, 
as  both  of  them  have  been  with  me.  You  will  observe  that 
Miller  speaks  of  it  as  not  so  proper  for  hedges  as  the  haw- 
thorn or  crab,  which  may  be  the  case  in  England,  but  I  can- 
not agree  with  him  as  it  respects  America.' 

The  tree  furnishes  a  large  quantity  of  seed,  which  rapidly 
vegetates ;  and  I  make  no  doubt  it  can  be  propagated  by 
cuttings,  which  mode  I  shall  adopt  in  the  spring. 

We  are  apprehensive  that  no  species  of  thorn  can  be  cul- 
tivated to  advantage  in  New  England  for  the  purpose  of 
making  hedges,  on  account  principally  of  the  insects  which 
in  this  part  of  the  country  infest  that  plant.  Some,  how- 
ever, prefer  the  American  thorn,  {cratcsgus  cor  data.)  A 
valuable  communication  relative  to  the  use  of  this  and  other 
plants  for  live  fences,  by  Benjamin  Shurtleff,  M.  D.,  may 
be  found  in  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  ix.  p.  209. 

Upon  consulting  Mr.  Lowell  as  to  any  changes  it  would 
be  proper  to  make  on  the  article  of  hedges,  he  states  that  he 
still  gives  the  preference  to  the  buckthorn,  but  that  the  New- 
castle thorn,  grown  by  John  Prince,  Esq.,  is  more  beautiful, 
and  it  bids  fair  to  be  as  enduring  and  as  free  from  disease. 
The  rapidity  of  growth  of  the  buckthorn  is  in  his  judgment 
a  full  equivalent  for  the  beauty  of  the  other. 


SHEEP.  There  are  a  great  many  varieties  of  sheep, 
with  differences  more  or  less  marked.  To  give  even  an 
abridged  account  of  all  the  kinds  described  in  foreign  publi- 
cations would  require  a  large  volume.  In  England  l;he  prin- 
cipal division  of  sheep  is  into  the  long  wool  and  the  short 
WOOL  kinds.     Among  those  bearing  long  wool  are  the  heices- 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


219 


tet,  Devonshire  Nots,  ExTnoor,  Heath,  the  Bakeiuell  or  Dishley 
breeds,  &:c.  &c.  The  origin  of  the  last-mentioned  breed 
of  sheep  is  thus  described  by  an  English  writer  : 

'  Mr.  Bakewell  selected  from  his  own  flock,  and  from  the 
flocks  of  others,  those  sheep  to  breed  from  which  possessed 
in  the  greatest  degree  that  perfection  of  form  he  was  de- 
sirous to  retain  and  perpetuate.  By  judiciously  crossing 
them,  and  selecting  the  most  perfect  of  their  progeny,  he  at 
length  succeeded  in  forming  the  breed,  which  has  been  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  the  New  Leicester,  or  Dishley 
breed  ;  and  having  attained  his  object,  he  carefully  guarded 
against  any  future  intermixtures  with  other  breeds.  This 
breed  exceeds  all  others  in  its  propensity  to  fatten ;  and  by 
crossing  by  rams  with  this  breed,  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  long-wooied  sheep  in  England  have  been  greatly  im- 
proved in  this  respect. 

'  The  peculiar  characters  of  these  sheep  have  been  well 
described  by  Mr.  Culley,  an  eminent  grazier  in  Northumber- 
land, who  introduced  the  breed  into  that  part  of  England. 
The  Dishley  breed  are  distinguished  from  other  long-wooled 
breeds  by  their  fine  lively  eyes,  clean  heads,  straight,  broad, 
flat  backs,  round  (barrel-like)  bodies,  very  fine  small  bones, 
t;  i.i  pelts,  and  inclination  to  fat  at  an  early  age.  The  last 
property  is  probably  owing  to  the  before-specified  qualities, 
which,  from  observation  and  experience,  there  is  reason  to 
believe  extend  generally  through  every  species  of  domestic 
quadrupeds.  The  Dishley  breed  is  not  only  peculiar  for  the 
mutton  being  fat,  but  also  for  the  fineness  of  the  grain  ;  the 
flavor  is  superior  to  the  mutton  of  most  other  long-wooled 
breeds.  The  weight  of  the  carcass  may  be  stated  in  general : 
ewes  three  or  four  years  old,  from  eighteen  to  twenty-six 
pounds  per  quarter  ;  wethers  two  years  old,  from  twenty  to 
thirty  pounds.' 

Among  the  short-wooled  sheep,  the  English  possess,  besides 
the  Merino  breed,  South  Doivns,  the  Ryeland,  the  Shropshire, 
the  Shetland,  the  Dorset,  Wilts,  &c.  &c.  Merino  sheep  were 
first  introduced  into  Great  Britain  in  the  year  1787  ;  and 
although  it  was  formerly  a  general  opinion,  that  the  excel- 
lence of  their  fleece  depended  in  a  great  degree  upon  the 
temperature  of  the  Spanish  climate,  it  has  been  ascertained 
that  the  fineness  of  the  Spanish  wool  is  not  impaired  by 
breeding  the  sheep  in  England,  France,  Saxony,  Hungary, 
Sec. 

It  is  important  in  the  management  of  sheep  to  keep  the 


220  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

Store  sheep  in  as  equal  condition  as  possible,  but  not  too  fat, 
all  the  year  round.  In  the  grass  season  they  should  be  kept 
in  dry  pastures,  in  which  the  grass  is  short  and  sweet.  Dur- 
ing ths  winter  they  should  have  a  steady  and  measured  al- 
lowance of  suitable  food,  and  not  sometimes  be  fed  profusely, 
and  at  other  times  scantily. 

Mortimer  says,  '  The  farmer  should  always  buy  his  sheep 
from  a  worse  land  than  his  own,  and  they  should  be  big 
boned,  and  have  a  long  greisy  wool. 

'  For  the  choice  of  sheep  to  breed,  the  ram  must  be  young, 
and  his  skin  of  the  same  color  with  his  wool ;  for  the  lambs 
will  be  of  the  same  color  with  his  skin.  Those  ewes  which 
have  no  horns  are  found  to  be  the  best  breeders.' 

The  farmers  of  Europe  know  how  to  distinguish  the  age 
of  sheep  by  their  teeth.  When  a  sheep  is  one  shear,  as  they 
express  it,  that  is,  has  been  sheared  but  once,  or  is  in  its 
second  year,  it  has  two  broad  teeth  before ;  when  it  is  two 
shear,  it  will  have  four ;  when  three,  six ;  when  four  shear, 
or  in  its  fifth  year,  it  will  have  eight  teeth  before.  After 
this,  their  mouths  begin  to  break. 

'  The  fdt  pastures  breed  straight,  tall  sheep,  and  the  barren 
hills  square  and  short  ones.  But  the  best  sheep  of  all  are 
those  bred  upon  new  ploughed  land,  the  reason  of  which  may 
be  easily  guessed,  as  such  Irnd  is  commonly  the  most  free 
from  bad  grasses. 

'  All  wet  and  moist  lands  are  bad  for  sheep,  especially  such 
as  are  subject  to  be  overflowed,  and  to  have  sand  and  dirt 
left  on  them.  The  salt  marshes  are  an  exception  from  this 
general  rule;  for  their  saltness  makes  amends  for  their  mois- 
ture ;  any  thing  salt,  by  reason  of  its  drying  qualities,  being 
of  great  advantage  to  sheep.  The  best  time  for  sheep  to 
yean,  which  go  twenty  weeks  with  lamb,  is  in  April,  unless 
the  owner  has  any  forward  grass,  or  turnips.  Ewes  that 
are  big  should  be  kept  but  bare ;  for  it  is  dangerous  for  them 
to  be  fat  at  the  time  of  their  bringing  forth  their  young. 
They  may  be  well  fed,  indeed,  like  cows,  a  fortnight  before- 
hand, to  put  them  in  heart.' 

M.  Buffon  says,  '  One  ram  will  be  sufficient  for  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  ewes ;  but  that  he  should  be  remarkable  for 
strength  and  comeliness ;  that  those  which  have  no  horns 
are  very  indifferent  ;  that  the  head  of  a  ram  should  be  large 
and  thick,  the  forehead  broad,  the  eyes  large  and  black,  the 
nose  short,  the  neck  thick,  the  body  long,  the  back  and  rump 
broad,  the  testicles  large,  and  the   tail  long ;  that   the  best 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  221 

are  white,  with  a  large  quantity  of  wool  on  the  belly,  tail, 
head  and  ears,  down  to  the  eyes ;  that  the  best  sheep  for 
propagation  are  those  which  have  most  wool,  and  that  close, 
long,  silky  and  white ;  especially  if  at  the  same  time  they 
have  a  large  body,  a  thick  neck,  and  arc  light  footed.' 

He  says,  '  that  ewes  fatten  very  fast  during  their  pregnan- 
cy; that  as  they  often  hurt  themselves,  and  frequently  mis- 
carry, so  they  sometimes  become  barren ;  and  that  it  is  not 
very  extraordinary  for  them  to  bring  forth  monstrous  pro- 
ductions. But  when  properly  tended,  they  are  capable  of 
yeaning  during  the  whole  of  their  life,  or  to  the  age  of  ten 
or  twelve  years.  But  most  commonly  when  they  come  to 
be  seven  or  eight  year  old,  they  begin  to  break,  and  become 
sickly ;  and  that  a  ram  is  no  longer  fit  for  propagation  after 
eight  years,  at  which  time  he  should  be  fattened  with  the 
old  sheep.' 

According  to  the  same  writer,  '  sheep  should  in  the  sum- 
mer be  turned  out  early  in  the  morning  to  feed ;  and  in  four 
or  five  hours,  after  watering,  be  brought  back  to  the  fold,  or 
to  some  shady  place.  At  four  o'clock,  in  the  afternoon,  they 
should  be  turned  to  their  pasture  again,  and  continue  there 
till  evening ;  and  were  it  not  for  the  danger  of  wolves,  they 
should  pass  the  night  in  the  open  air,  which  would  render 
them  more  vigorous,  clean,  and  healthy.  As  the  too  great 
heat  of  the  sun  is  hurtful  to  them,  shady  pastures  are  best 
for  them  ;  or  else  to  drive  them  to  a  place  with  a  western 
descent  in  the  morning,  and  the  contrary  towards  evening.' 
That  their  wool  may  be  saved,  they  should  not  be  pastured 
in  bushy  places,  or  where  there  are  briars.  Sheep  are  often 
thus  deprived  of  most  of  their  fleeces;  which,  besides  the  loss 
of  the  wool,  is  very  hurtful  to  the  animals,  when  the  wea- 
ther is  not  warm. 

The  above  writer  directs,  '  that  every  year  a  flock  of  sheep 
should  be  examined,  in  order  to  find  out  such  as  begin  to  grow 
old,  and  ought  to  be  turned  off  for  fattening.  As  they  re- 
quire a  particular  management,  so  they  should  be  put  in  a 
flock  by  themselves.  They  should  feed  while  the  grass  is 
moistened  with  dew  in  the  morning.  Salt  should  be  given 
them  to  excite  thirst,  as  the  more  they  drink  the  faster  they 
will  grow  fat."^  But  to  complete  their  fattening,  and  make 
their  flesh  firm  and  solid,  they  should  have  some  corn  or  grain 

*  It  has  been  found,  however,  that  salt  given  in  excess  is  injurious  to 
sheep. 

19=* 


222  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

given  them.'  They  may  be  fattened  in  the  winter  ;  but  it  is 
commonly  too  expensive,  ab  they  will  require  a  good  deal  of 
richer  food  than  hay.  When  sheep  are  once  become  fat, 
they  should  be  killed ;  for  it  is  said  they  cannot  be  made  fat 
a  second  lime.  The  teeth  of  ewes  begin  to  decay  at  five, 
those  of  weathers  at  seven,  and  those  of  rams  not  until  eight. 

Eives,  Lambs,  SfC.  It  is  recommended  to  give  ewes  with 
lamb  a  somewhat  more  than  ordinary  quantity  of  food  for 
a  month  or  six  weeks  before  they  are  expected  to  yean ; 
not  enough,  however,  to  make  them  fat,  as  dangerous  con- 
sequences might  attend  their  being  in  very  high  condition  at 
that  period.  Turnips  are  said  to  be  injurious  to  ewes  with 
lamb,  but  may  be  well  given  them  after  they  have  yeaned. 
If  your  sheep,  whether  store  sheep  or  ewes  with  lamb,  have 
good  hay,  about  a  quart  of  potatoes  a  day  to  each  will,  it  is 
said,  be  very  beneficial,  and  an  ample  allowance.  But  when 
the  object  is  to  fat  them,  according  to  a  writer  in  Rees'  Cy- 
clopedia, about  a  gallon  of  potatoes  a  day,  with  a  little  hay, 
will  be  the  proper  quantity  ;  but  this  is  dependent,  in  part,  on 
the  size  of  the  animals,  and  in  part  on  the  quality  and  quan- 
tity of  the  hay  which  is  allowed  to  them.  Potatoes,  besides 
their  use  as  food  for  sheep,  are  said  to  be  very  serviceable 
as  an  article  of  diet,  which  usually  supersedes  the  necessity 
of  medicine.  They  have,  when  given  raw,  an  opening  or 
purgative  quality,  which  is  thought  to  be  of  use,  and  answer 
a  similar  purpose  with  sheep  which  is  effected  with  swine 
by  brimstone  and  antimony.  Potatoes,  baked,  steamed,  oi 
boiled,  will  furnish  more  nutriment  than  those  which  are 
raw. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  place  in  the  stable  small  tubs  or 
troughs  of  water  for  the  sheep  to  drink  in.  They  will  do 
very  well  in  summer  without  water,  as  they  feed  when  the 
dew  is  on,  but  they  need  water  in  winter,  especially  if  fed 
mostly  on  dry  food.  'When  sheep  have  colds,  and  discharge 
mucus  from  the  nose,  good  feeding,  together  with  pine  boughs, 
given  occasionally,  will  cure  them ;  or  tar,  spread  over  a 
board,  over  which  a  little  fine  salt  is  strewed,  will  induce  the 
sheep  to  lick  up  tar,  and  this  will  cure  a  cold."^  Half  a  gill 
of  Indian  corn  a  day,  given  to  each  sheep  during  winter,  is 
recommended  as  keeping  them  in  good  heart,  preventing  the 
wool  from  falling  oflf,  and  enablin^r  the  ewes   to   rear  their 


*  Deane's  New  England  Farmer. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


223 


young  better  than  they  would  if  fed  altogether  on  food  of  a 
less  substantial  nature. 

'  When  several  kinds  of  food  can  be  procured,  it  is  right 
to  give  them  alternately  to  ihe  sheep  at  different  meals,  m 
the  course  of  the  same  day  ;  the  qualities  of  one  kind  aid  or 
compensate  those  of  another.  At  certain  hours  of  the  day, 
dry  fodder  should  be  given,  and,  at  others,  roots  or  grain. 
If  there  be  any  danger  that  the  roots  may  decay,  the  winter 
should  be  begun  with  them,  mixing,  however,  some  dry  food 
with  them,  for  alone  they  would  not  be  sufficiently  nutri- 
tious.'=^ 

Writers  do  not  agree  on  the  quantity  of  food  which  a 
given  number  of  sheep  will  consume  to  advantage  in  a  given 
time.  Probably,  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  lay  do.vn  any 
rules  on  the  subject  which  would  not  be  subject  to  very 
nearly  as  many  excepiions  as  coincidences.  Some  seasons 
would  require  more  food  than  others  for  the  same  sheep  ; 
the  same  number  of  sheep  of  different  sizes,  ages,  sexes,  and 
breeds,  would  also  consume  different  quantities  of  food  of 
the  same  quality.  When  we  add  to  these  causes  of  error 
the  consideration  that  food  of  the  same  kind  is  often  very 
different  in  quality, — one  ton  of  clover  hay,  for  example, 
mowed  at  the  right  period  of- its  growth,  and  well  made  and 
housed,  may  be  worth  two  tons  of  the  same  sort  of  hay 
grown  and  made  under  different  circumstances — nothing, 
therefore,  can  be  hoped  for  in  this  inquiry,  except  some  ap- 
proximation to  truth.  We  may,  however,  perhaps  provide 
ourselves  with  materials  for  the  exercise  of  those  qualities 
for  guessing,  for  which  New  England  people  are  celebrated. 
When  a  man  is  laying  in  fodder  for  his  sheep  or  neat  cattle, 
it  may  be  of  great  consequence  to  be  able  to  form  a  con- 
jecture approximating  the  truth,  relative  to  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  provisions  for  that  purpose  which  it  may  be 
expedient  to  accumulate. 

Mr.  Lawrence  says,  '  sheep  will  eat,  on  an  average,  twenty 
pounds  of  turnips  each  in  twenty-four  hours.  An  acre  of 
good  turnips  in  the  field,  between  November  and  March, 
will  keep  one  hundred  sheep  six  weeks.  One  gallon  of  raw 
potatoes  will  suffice  a  sheep  twenty-four  hours,  but  some 
will  eat  much  more.  Fourteen  hundred  sheep  will  eat  up 
and  spoil  an  acre  of  good  turnips  in  a  night.  Of  the  quan- 
tities of  hay  and  corn    [grain]    which  a  sheep  will  consume 

*  Tessier's  Treatise  oa  Sheep. 


224  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

daily,  I  do  not  recollect  any  accurate  experiments.  To 
feed  liberally  one  hundred  sheep  with  this  precious  article 
throughout  the  Avinter  season,  ten  tons  at  least  would  be  re- 
quired ;  although  I  have  lately  been  informed  by  a  great 
sheep-master,  that  he  allows  but  that  quantity  to  a  flock  of 
one  thousand  ;  his  turnips  being  exellent,  with  plenty  of 
grazing  ground. 

'  As  to  corn,  [grain]  a  large  sheep  will  eat  several  pints  or 
pounds  per  day  ;  and  the  comparison  of  quantity  of  food  be- 
tween the  sheep  and  the  ox  may  be  generally  stated  at  one- 
eighth  or  one-ninth  part  for  the  sheep.' 

'  One  thing  (says  M.  Tessier)  cannot  be  too  much  recom- 
mended, which  is  to  place  the  hay  in  the  racks  while  the 
sheep  are  out  of  the  house  ;  by  this  precaution,  the  dust  will 
not  fall  upon  the  fleeces.'  Dr.  Deane  observed  that  the  rack 
in  which  the  hay  is  put  should  be  upright,  so  that  in  feeding 
the  seeds,  chaff',  &c.  should  not  fall  into  the  wool  about  their 
necks.  Under  the  rack  should  be  a  trough  for  catching  the 
seeds  of  the  hay  and  feeding  the  sheep. 

With  regard  to  giving  salt  to  sheep,  writers  have  disa- 
greed. It  is  believed  to  be  better  not  to  give  them  any  than 
to  allow  them  too  great  a  quantity.  M.  Tessier  says, 
'  Sheep  have  been  known  to  be  attacked  by  long  and  trouble- 
some looseness  in  consequence  of  having  taken  too  much 
salt  ;  which  has  induced  the  belief  that  sea-water  is  poison- 
ous to  them ;  and  that  his  sheep  have  always  been  healthy, 
though  he  had  never  given  them  any  salt.  But  he  states 
that  it  may  be  indispensably  necessary  in  wet  countries. 
And  Dr.  Cooper,  editor  of  the  last  edition  of  the  Domestic 
Encyclopedia,  recommends  one-fourth  of  an  ounce  a  day  as 
a  proper  quantity  for  sheep.  xMr.  Grove  likewise  says,  '  salt 
is  required  by  sheep  at  intervals  during  the  whole  year,  but 
it  is  often  given  in  too  great  quantity,  and  almost  forced  upon 
the  sheep ;  which  is  often  injurious,  and  often  injures  the 
digestion  so  that  the  best  grain  will  pass  through  them  un- 
altered.' 

The  same  writer  says,  '  In  the  season  for  dropping  lambs, 
the  utmost  care  is  necessary.  The  birth  is  most  commonly 
easy,  but  often  slow.  Ignorant  shepherds  are  very  apt  on 
such  occasions  to  be  aiding  in  the  birth,  which  is  always  use- 
less and  often  very  injurious. 

'  It  often  happens,'  says  Mr.  Grove,  '  that  ewes  will  not 
own  their  lambs,  particularly  the  first  they  bear ;  and  in  this 
case  I  would  advise  to  the  sprinkling  a  little  salt  on  the  lamb, 


AND    RURAL   ECONOMIST.  225 

which  induces  the  ewe  to  lick  it,  after  which  she  will  gene- 
rally allow  it  to  suck.  If  not,  the  ewe  with  her  lamb  should 
be  placed  in  a  separate  inclosure  (of  which  several  should  be 
previously  prepared)  and  fed  with  the  most  nutritious  fodder, 
particularly  with  nourishing  liquids,  that  the  udder  may  be 
uncomfortably  distended  ;  and  if  this  be  not  sufficient,  sho 
must  be  tied  by  the  legs  till  the  lamb  has  been  once  suckled; 
after  which  there  will  be  no  farther  difficulty.' 

Sir  John  Sinclair  observed,  that  '  there  is  no  food  of  which 
sheep  are  fonder  than  pea-straw ;  and  where  circumstances 
are  favorable  for  that  crop,  peas  ought  to  be  cultivated  more 
for  the  straw,  from  the  advantages  that  would  thence  be  de- 
rived by  the  sheep-farmer.'  Mr.  Young  al.^o  observes,  that 
'  the  straw  of  early  white  peas,  applied  to  sheep,  is  the  most 
valuable  return  made  by  straw.' 

A  writer  for  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  iv.  p.  234, 
with  the  signature  M.  R.  C,  gives  the  following  judicious 
remarks  on  sheep. 

'  Perhaps  there  is  no  domestic  animal  that  requires  more 
nice  and  constant  attention  than  the  sheep,  and  n  j  other  that 
will  more  richly  pay  for  generous  keeping.  Though  he  may 
not  bfc  more  liable  to  disease,  nor  require  a  better  quality  of 
food  than  neat  stock,  still  that  management  which  will  keep 
cattle  in  good  case  will  not  answer  for  sheep.  His  habits 
and  mode  of  feeding  are  entirely  different.  For  instance,  in 
the  winter  season  a  cow  may  be  kept  tied  to  the  stall  twenty- 
two  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four,  nnd,  if  well  fed  three  times  a 
day,  keep  her  flesh  and  get  sufficient  exercise  for  her  health. 
Serve  a  sheep  in  the  same  manner  and  it  would  not  proba- 
bly live  a  month.  It  is  natural  for  sheep  to  move  about  and 
change  situation.  Turn  a  flock  of  hungry  sheep  into  a  pas- 
ture, they  will  run  to  the  end  of  it  before  they  begin  to  eat ; 
feed  them  in  troughs,  they  will  run  over  all  till  they  come 
to  the  last,  when  they  have  it  in  their  power.  They  are 
almost  continually  shifting  situation  from  hill  to  dale,  from 
one  kind  of  food  to  another  ;  and  it  is  a  fact  that  sheep  will 
thrive  better  on  two  or  three  different  kinds  of  ordinary  fod- 
der, than  they  will  to  be  confined  to  one  kind  that  is  of  a 
superior  quality. 

'  The  proper  time  to  yard  sheep  in  the  fall  is  while  they 
are  yet  in  good  order  from  fresh  feed,  and  before  the  frost 
takes  the  nourishing  qualities  from  the  grass  :  but  a  time 
in  which  many  sheep  are  not  folded  ;  they  are  left  to  nibble 
over  the  frozen  pastures  till  they  lose   the  flesh   of  half  a 


226  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

summer's  keeping,  and  which  takes  half  a  winter  to  regain. 
It  is  a  great  error  which  is  persisted  in  with  an  idea  to  save 
fodder.  But  setting  aside  the  injury  done  pvistures  by  close 
feeding  at  this  season  of  the  year,  the  sheep  which  stray 
away  and  are  lost,  and  the  time  spent  in  hunting  them,  which 
are  not  idle  considerations,  the  farmer  would  more  than  get 
repaid  for  his  extra  fodder,  and  a  few  weeks'  attention  in 
yarding  his  sheep  sooner,  by  preserving  their  health  and 
condition.  When  they  are  put  to  winter  quarters  they  re- 
quire as  much  v^.riety  as  possible,  not  that  they  want  so 
much  room,  but  they  need  a  number  of  different  apartments. 
Two  yards  and  one  shed  wil]  do  very  well  for  one  flock,  or, 
what  will  answer  the  same  purpose,  if  a  large  number  of 
sheep  are  to  be  kept  near  each  other,  have  the  yards  in  a 
row,  and  one  more  yard  than  flocks  of  sheep.  Then  by 
shifting  one  flock  to  the  spare  yard  it  leaves  another  vacant, 
and  so  on.  Thus  may  all  be  changed,  which  should  be  done 
at  every  time  of  feeding.  As  fast  as  the  yards  are  empty,  the 
food  should  be  put  in  them,  and  never  while  the  sheep  are 
there.  One  hundred  sheep  are  enough  to  be  kept  together. 
Cleanliness  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  Their  yards  should 
be  littered  with  straw  or  something  of  the  kind  constantly, 
or  they  will  be  in  danger  of  losing  in  a  degree  a  relish  for 
their  food. 

'  The  next  thing  necessary  is  to  have  proper  places  for 
your  sheep  to  eat  hay  in,  which  are  the  common  board  man- 
gers, and  may  make  partings  to  the  yards.  Take  six  joists, 
say  three  inches  square,  and  four  feet  long ;  have  the  boards 
of  a  length,  then  nail  two  of  them  to  the  joists  set  up  per- 
pendicularly in  such  a  manner  that  one  joist  will  be  in  the 
middle  of  each  board,  and  the  other  two  at  the  ends,  and 
that  the  top  edge  of  the  boards  will  be  one  foot  from  the 
ground  ;  then  nail  short  boards  on  the  ends  two  feet  and  a 
half  long,  the  width  of  the  manger ;  the  next  board  on  the 
sides  to  be  placed  eight  inches  from  the  lower  boards,  then 
board  it  tight  to  the  top  of  the  joists,  and  the  manger  is 
finished.  A  manger  eighteen  feet  long,  of  this  description, 
will  accommodate  thirty  sheep.  Single  mangers  may  be 
made  along  the  outside  fence  of  the  yard,  which  do  not  re- 
quire to  be  so  wide.  The  great  superiority  of  these  mangers 
over  racks  is,  first,  the  facility  of  putting  hay  into  them 
without  dropping  it  on  the  ground  ;  secondly,  it  obviates  the 
danger  of  hay-seed  falling  on  the  wool  of  the  sheep  ;  and 
thirdly,   it  prevents   any  waste  of  fodder.     The  next  thing 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  227 

after  mangers  for  hay,  should  be  a  place  appropriated  for 
feeding  out  roots,  which  every  farmer  should  raise  to  a  cer- 
tain extent.  Although  we  cannot  turn  them  to  so  good  an 
account  as  the  English  feeders  do,  on  account  of  the  severity 
of  our  winters,  still  a  proportion  of  them  as  food  for  our 
stock  is  of  great  importance.  In  order  that  the  farmer  may 
make  the  n.ost  of  his  roots,  he  should  have  a  cellar  fixed  to 
receive  them  in  the  fall,  Avithout  too  much  labor,  and  ac- 
cessible at  any  time  in  the  winter,  without  endangering  them 
by  frost.  The  cellar  should  be  placed  as  near  the  yard  as 
practicable,  with  a  watering-place  at  hand.  A  good  way  of 
washing  roots  is  to  have  an  oblong  box  that  will  hold  two 
or  three  bushels,  with  the  bottom  perforated  with  auger 
holes,  and  rockers  placed  on  the  under  side  of  the  box  ;  then. 
by  pouring  in  a  little  water  and  rocking  them,  the  dirt  will 
directly  wash  through  the  bottom  of  the  box.  They  should 
then  be  cut  fine  with  a  sharp  shovel,  and  they  are  fit  for 
feeding  out.  Browse  in  the  winter  occasionally  for  sheep  is 
very  palatable,  and  is  of  considerable  use  in  preserving  their 
appetite,  and  as  a  change  of  food,  but  care  should  be  taken 
to  select  the  right  kind.  There  are  many  kinds  of  hard 
wood,  of  wnich  the  bark  and  buds  are  very  injurious.^  The 
bark  of  the  black  cherry  eaten  by  ewes  with  lamb  is  almost 
sure  to  produce  abortion.  Generally  winter  green  is  to  be 
preferred  to  any  other  browse.  White  and  yellow  pine  are 
best. 

'  Regularity  in  feeding  sheep  is  of  prime  consequence  in 
cold  dry  weather.  It  is  not  necessary  to  feed  them  oftener 
than  three  times  a  day,  if  discretion  is  used  in  the  quantity 
of  fodder.  In  warm  weather,  and  especially  if  it  is  muddy, 
they  should  have  little  at  a  time,  and  be  fed  four  or  five 
times  a  day.  Daubenton  and  others  calculate  that  two 
pounds  of  hay  are  sufficient  for  the  support  of  one  sheep  a 
day,  (which,  by  the  way,  in  our  climate  is  not  enough.)  Cal- 
culations of  this  kind,  if  made  with  the  utmost  accuracy  on 
one,  or  any  number  of  sheep  at  one  time,  will  not  apply  to 
the  same  sheep  at  another  ;  because  so  much  depends  on 
circumstances.  A  sheep  that  will  eat  three  pounds  of  hay 
in  a  cold  day  will  not,  perhaps,  eat  more  than  two  in  a  warm 
day  following  ;  and  still  less  in  a  damp  one.  Not  that  they 
require  so  much  more  food  in  cold  weather  than  in  warm, 

*  The  wood  disease,  so  much  complained  of  in  France,  is  wholly  owing 
to  sheep's  eating  fresh  buds. 


228  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

but  that  sudden  changes  affect  their  appetites  and  without 
injuring  their  heaUh.  Again,  a  sheep  of  proper  form  and 
inclination  to  fatten  will  not  need  so  nmch  nutriment  to  pre- 
serve its  f.esh  as  one  of  the  same  weight  of  a  coarse,  raw- 
boned,  uneasy  make.  And  one  kind  of  hay  may  have  double 
the  substantial  qualities  of  another.  Therefore  no  certain 
rule  can  be  given  as  to  the  quantity  necessary  for  their  sup- 
port;  though  experiments  of  this  kind  are  not  without 
their  use,  for,  as  remarked  in  one  of  the  New  England  Far- 
mers, they  afford  "  a  fine  opportunity  of  guessing  at  the  pro- 
per (jUantity  necessary  to  keep  a  stock  a  given  time." 

'  There  exists  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the 
proper  time  of  year  for  lambs  to  come.  A  New  York  wri- 
ter thinks  that  rams  should  not  be  taken  from  the  ewes  at 
all ;  that  lambs  should  come  early  in  the  winter,  which  is 
the  natural  time.  This  I  think  erroneous ;  the  natural  time 
is  the  most  convenient  time,  and  the  proprietor  should  be 
governed  wholly  by  his  means.  There  are  advantages  in 
having  lambs  come  early,  and  disadvantages,  and  vice  versa 
the  same  in  having  them  come  late.  If  a  man  has  con- 
voiiences  for  guarding  against  cold,  and  plenty  of  succulent 
food  for  his  ewes,  February  and  ]\Iarch  is  decidedly  the 
best  time  for  them  to  come.  It  is  true  that  they  require 
more  attention  at  this  season  than  in  warm  weather,  but  time 
is  not  worth  so  much,  and  the  lambs  learn  to  eat  hay  before 
they  are  turned  to  pasture,  consequently  they  do  much  bet- 
ter the  following  winter.  They  get  out  of  the  Avay  of  foxes, 
and  are  able  to  take  care  of  themselves  at  washing  and 
shearing  time,  which  is  of  considerable  consequence.  On 
the  contrary,  if  the  farmer  is  deficient  in  proper  food  and 
other  conveniences  for  his  sheep,  and  has  a  pasture  near  that 
he  can  look  to  his  flock,  it  may  often  be  advisable  to  have 
his  lambs  come  in  April  or  May. 

'  When  sheep  are  turned  to  pasture  in  the  spring,  the  tran- 
sition from  dry  food  to  grass  causes  a  relax,  which  spoils,  or 
very  much  injures  a  great  part  of  the  wool  on  their  buttocks 
and  thighs,  and  makes  double  the  work  at  the  time  of  wash- 
ing ;  therefore,  before  they  are  turned  to  pasture  the  wool  in 
the  way  should  be  carefully  shorn  off,  which  is  very  little 
trouble,  and  makes  a  saving  worth  noticing. 

'  In  selecting  a  flock  of  sheep,  the  first  care  undoubtedly 
should  be  to  get  those  of  the  evenest  and  finest  wool ;  the 
next,  those  of  the  best  form  and  most  peaceable  disposition ; 
and  the  next  care,  which  is  very  little  thought  of,  to  get  those 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  229 

that  are  without  horns.  Any  one  who  has  had  the  manage- 
ment of  sheep  in  the  winter  can  testify  to  the  injury  which 
large-horned  sheep  do  in  crowding  after  fodder  and  running 
through  gates,  &c.  Horned  rams  kept  with  pregnant  ewes 
do  great  mischief.  In  many  parts  of  Spain  they  amputate 
the  horns  of  their  rams,  for  which  there  are  various  proces- 
ses :  some  use  a  large  chisel ;  others  a  saw,  which  is  the 
most  expeditious  way,  and  is  preferable.  There  are  other 
serious  objections  to  the  keeping  of  horned  sLeep,  which  I 
cannot  better  exemplify  than  by  quoting  the  following  words 
from  Henry  Cline,  an  eminent  surgeon. 

'  "  Horns  are  useless  in  domestic  animals.  It  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  breed  animals  without  them.  The  breeders  of  horn- 
ed cattle  and  horned  sheep  sustain  a  loss  more  extensive 
than  they  may  conceive,  for  it  is  not  the  horn  alone,  but  also 
much  more  bone  in  the  skulls  of  such  animals  to  support 
their  horns ;  besides,  there  is  an  additional  quantity  of  liga- 
ment and  bone  in  the  neck,  which  is  of  small  value.  The 
skull  of  a  ram  with  its  horns  weighed  five  times  more  than 
another  skull  which  was  hornless.  Both  these  skulls  were 
taken  from  sheep  of  the  same  age,  each  being  four  years  old. 
The  great  difference  in  weight  depended  chiefly  on  the  horns, 
for  the  lower  jaws  were  nearly  equal,  one  weighing  seven 
ounces  and  the  other  six  ounces  and  three-quarters ;  which 
proves  that  the  natural  size  of  the  head  was  nearly  the  same 
in  both,  independent  of  the  horns  and  the  thickness  of  the 
bone  which  supports  them.  In  a  horned  animal  the  skull  is 
extremely  thick,  in  a  hornless  animal  it  is  much  thinner, 
especially  in  that  part  where  the  horns  usually  grow." 

'  To  those  who  have  not  reflected  on  the  subject,  it  may 
appear  of  liule  consequence  whether  sheep  or  cattle  have 
horns ;  but,  on  a  very  moderate  calculation,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  loss  in  farming  stock,  and  also  in  the  diminution  of 
animal  food,  is  very  considerable  from  the  production  of 
horns  and  their  appendages.  A  mode  of  breeding  which 
would  prevent  the  production  of  these,  would  afford  a  consi- 
derable profit  in  an  increase  of  meat  and  wool  and  other  valu- 
able parts.' 

Sheari7Lg  Sheep,  <f*c.  Deane's  New  England  Farmer 
states,  that  '  we  shear  our  sheep  in  general  too  early  in  this 
country.  In  England,  where  the  spring  is  more  forward 
than  in  this  country,  the  approved  time  of  shearing  is  from 
the  middle  to  the  latter  end  of  June.  They  should  be  wash- 
ed in  a  warm  time  ;  after  this  they  should  run  three  or  four 
20 


230  THE    COMPLETE    FAHMER 

days  in  a  clean  pasture,  before  they  are  shorn.  It  is  good 
for  them  to  have  time  to  sweat  a  little  in  their  wool,  after 
washing,' 

Mr.  Lawrence  says,  '  June  seems  [in  England]  to  be  the 
general  shearing  month,  and  where  no  extraordinary  precau- 
tions are  taken,  the  business  had  better  be  delayed  till  to- 
wards midsummer,  more  especially  in  cold  backward  springs; 
because  in  such  seasons  we  seldom  until  that  period  have 
any  settled  fair  weather.  Besides,  a  more  perfect  fleece  is 
obtained,  and  fuller  of  yolk  from  the  perspiration  of  the  ani- 
mal. 

'  Washing  previous  to  clipping  the  sheep  is  the  general 
custom,  with  few  exceptions,  in  this  country ;  indeed  it  is 
proper  with  all  long-wooled  sheep,  but  not  so  easily  practi- 
cable Avith  the  matted,  greasy,  and  impenetrable  fleeces  of 
the  Spanish  and  carding-wool  breed,  which  in  Spain  they 
invariably  shear  dry,  as  has  been  the  practice  in  Devonshire, 
with  the  short-wooled  sheep,  for  centuries.' 

It  is  observed  by  Loudon,  that  '  sheep  shearing  in  Rom- 
ney  I^Iarsh,  [England]  commences  about  midsummer  and 
finishes  about  the  middle  of  July.  Those  who  shear  latest 
apprehend  that  they  gain  half  a  pound  weight  in  every  fleece, 
by  the  increased  perspiration  of  the  sheep  and  consequent 
growth  of  the  wool.  Besides,  they  say,  in  early  shearing  the 
wool  has  not  the  condition  which  it  afterwards  acquires. 
But  then  in  late  shearing  the  fleece  will  have  the  less  time 
to  grow,  so  as  to  protect  the  animal  against  the  rigors  of  the 
succeeding  winter ;  and  if  a  year's  interval  is  allowed  be- 
tween each  clipping  time,  after  your  routine  is  established 
the  wool  will  have  had  the  same  period  for  its  growth, 
whether  you  shear  early  or  late.  Sheep  with  fine  fleeces, 
which  are  shorn  without  being  washed  on  the  back  of  the 
animal,  may  be  clipped  earlier  in  the  season  than  those 
which  are  exposed  to  suffer  for  half  an  hour  or  more  in  cold 
water.' 

Lemuel  W.  Briggs,  Esq.,  of  Bristol,  Rhode  Island,  in  arti- 
cles published  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  volume  ili.  pages 
273,  287,  stated  certain  facts,  which  would  seem  favorable  to 
early  shearing;  and  in  certain  circumstances,  and  particu- 
larly with  sheep  which  are  not  washed,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
but  the  practice  is  beneficial.  Mr.  Briafgs  stated  in  substance, 
that  Mr.  Rouse  Potter,  of  Prudence  island,  Narraganset  bay, 
Rhode  Island,  who  kept  nine  hundred  and  fifty  sheep,  and 
lost  but  two  the  preceding  winter,  begins  to  shear  them  by 


AND    RURAL   ECONOMIST.  231 

the  first  of  May  if  the  weather  is  favorable,  and  continues 
daily  until  he  completes  his  shearing.  For  the  first  week, 
he  puts  those  sheared  under  cover  or  in  close  yards  every 
night ;  by  that  time  the  wool  will  grow  so  as  to  give  them  a 
sufficient  covering.  By  this  practice  of  early  shearing  he 
gains  much  wool,  which  formerly,  when  he  put  his  shearing 
ofi  till  the  middle  of  June,  the  sheep  would  shed;  and  far- 
ther, when  thus  early  sheared,  the  wool  begins  to  start  and 
grow  much  quicker  than  when  shearing  is  deferred  to  the 
usual  time.  He  says,  that  formerly,  being  exposed  immedi- 
ately after  shearing  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  their  bare  backs 
would  frequently  become  sore  and  scabby,  when  no  wool 
will  grow  till  healed,  and  then  what  does  grow  from  these 
scars  is  thinner  and  coarser  than  the  rest. 

'  Mr.  Potter  states,  that  he  has  found  from  actual  experi- 
ment, that  he  not  only  gets  more  wool,  which  would  other- 
wise be  lost,  but  the  succeeding  ivool  will  be  from  half  an 
inch  to  an  inch  longer,  if  sheared  early,  than  it  will  be  if 
delayed  to  the  usual  time  of  shearing.  And  farther,  there  is 
not  the  same  necessity  for  Avashing  the  sheep,  as  the  wool  is 
much  cleaner,  more  free  from  sand  and  dirt,  when  taken  off 
early,  than  it  would  be  if  suifered  to  remain  on  their  backs 
1  til  a  hot  sun  had  compelled  them  to  seek  refuge  under 
wails  and  fences.' 

The  foregoing  authorities  are  apparently  altogether  con- 
tradictory, as  respects  the  time  of  year  in  which  to  shear 
sheep.  But  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  Mr.  Potter  did  not 
wash  his  sheep  before  shearing,  which  must  make  considera- 
ble difference  with  regard  to  the  risk  from  cold  ;  and  Mr.  Pot- 
ter appears  to  have  been  careful  to  shelter  his  sheep  after 
shearing,  which  must  in  a  great  measure  obviate  the  disad- 
vantages of  early  shearing. 

Mr.  Lawrence,  an  eminent  English  writer,  asserts,  '  It  has 
frequently  appeared  to  me,  on  reflection,  that  it  might  be 
preferable  to  shear  all  kinds  of  sheep  unwashed,  and  to  wash 
them  after  shearing,  when  it  would  be  much  more  effectual 
with  respect  to  their  health.  Such  as  were  affected  with 
foulness  or  eruption  of  the  skin  might  be  washed  and  scrub- 
bed in  a  lye  of  water  and  wood  ashes,  in  a  large  tub  which 
would  contain  three.  It  would  both  conduce  to  the  health 
of  the  sheep  and  promote  the  regular  groAvth  of  the  wool. 
Wool  would  probably  keep  best  in  the  grease,  and  dust 
might  be  shaken  from  it.     Any  difficulty  in  respect  to  fixing 


232  THE    COMPLETE    FARBIER 

the  price  of  wool  in  an  unwashed  state  would  vanish  in  a 
season  or  two.' 

'  Clipping  off  the  coarse  soiled  wool  about  the  thighs  and 
docks,'  says  Loudon,  some  weeks  before  the  usual  time  of 
washing  and  clipping  the  sheep,  is  an  excellent  practice,  as 
by  this  means  the  sheep  are  kept  clean  and  cool  when  the 
season  is  hot ;  and  with  ewes,  the  udders  are  prevented  from 
becoming  sore.' 

In  separating  for  the  purpose  of  washing,  the  flock  is 
brought  to  the  side  of  the  washing  pool,  and  those  lambs 
and  sheep  of  different  kinds  fit  io  be  washed  are  put  into 
separate  inclosures ;  and  such  lambs  as  are  too  young  to  be 
clipped  are  not  washed,  but  confined  in  a  fold  or  inclosure  of 
any  kind,  at  such  a  distance  from  the  washing  place  that 
they  may  not  disturb  their  mothers  by  bleating. 

In  performing  the  operation  of  washing,  it  was  formerly 
the  method  to  have  the  washers  standing  up  to  their  breast 
in  the  water;  but  from  the  inconvenience  and  danger  of  it, 
(the  men  requiring  a  large  supply  of  spirituous  liquors,  and 
being  liable  to  be  attacked  with  colds,  rheumatisms,  and  other 
diseases,)  various  other  modes  of  performing  the  operation 
have  been  proposed.  Among  others,  that  of  sinking  an  empty 
hogs'ieid  or  other  vessel  of  sufficient  capacity  for  a  man  to 
stand  in  while  washing  the  sheep,  may  be  as  eligible  as  any. 
A  boat  near  a  bold  shore  of  a  sheet  of  water,  with  one  end 
aground,  by  which  the  sheep  is  introduced  and  put  overboard, 
while  the  min  who  washes  him  remains  in  the  boat  and  ex- 
ten  Is  his  arms  over  the  sides,  and  thus  performs  the  necessary 
manipulations,  furnishes  a  convenient  mode  of  washing 
sheep.  A  small  perpendicular  waterfall,  under  which  sheep 
are  conducted,  may  likewise  be  used  to  advantage  for  that 
purpose. 

It  was  uniformly  the  practice,  immediately  after  shearing, 
to  smear  the  bodies  of  sheep  with  some  ointment,  in  which 
tar  is  the  chief  ingredient.  This,  however,  has  been  con- 
demned, as  causing  a  waste  of  wool  in  carding  and  manu- 
facturing into  cloth.  But  if  the  tar  is  mixed  with  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  some  greasy  substance,  the  benefit  may  be  ob- 
tained, (which  is  to  preserve  against  ticks  and  the  scab,  as 
well  as  to  increase  the  growth  of  the  wool,)  without  any  bad 
consequence  resulting.  A  writer  in  Rees'  Cyclopedia,  on 
wool,  says  much  in  favor  of  a  composition  greatly  used  in 
Northumberland,  England,  and  gives  the  following  directions 
for  making  it :  '  From  sixteen  to  twenty  pounds  of  butter 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  233 

are  placed  over  a  gentle  fire  and  melted  :  a  gallon  of  tar  is 
then  added,  and  the  mixture  is  then  stirred  with  a  stick  until 
the  tar  and  butter  are  well  combined,  and  form  a  soft 
tenacious  ointment.'  Some  skill  is  required  in  its  applica- 
tion. The  locks  should  be  divided,  and  the  ointment  ap- 
plied directly  to  the  skin.  It  does  no  good  to  apply  it  to  the 
outside  of  the  wool,  but  it  must  come  in  contact  with  the 
skin.  This  is  best  effected  by  opening  the  wool  along  the 
neck  and  back,  and  applying  the  ointment  with  the  finger. 
In  short,  you  must  apply  it  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  be 
most  likely  to  spread  over  every  part  of  the  body.  The 
quantity  laid  on  each  animal  differs  in  different  districts.  In 
the  lighter  mode  of  greasing,  one  gallon  of  tar  and  twenty 
pounds  of  butter  will  be  sufficient  for  fifty  sheep.  In  Scot- 
land, where  greasing  is  applied  merely  to  preserve  the  ani- 
mal from  inclemency  of  the  climate,  a  much  larger  propor- 
tion of  tar  is  used.  This  would  be  very  injurious  to  the 
wool  were  it  any  other  but  the  coarsest  kind.  To  derive  the 
greatest  advantage  from  the  ointment,  both  to  the  wool  and 
the  sheep,  it  should  be  applied  immediately  after  shearing, 
and  again  on  the  approach  of  winter.  By  the  first  greasing, 
the  wool  will  be  kept  soft  and  moist  during  the  sultry  heats 
of  July  and  August,  and  the  top  of  the  staple  will  not  be- 
come harsh  and  discolored.  One  acknowledged  advantage 
of  greasing  immediately  after  shearing  should  not  be  over- 
looked :  it  destroys  the  sheep  tick,  and  has  a  tendency  to  pre- 
vent cutaneous  distempers,  and  to  protect  the  skin  against 
the  bite  of  the  fly. 

Mr.  J.  Nelson  published  a  recipe  for  the  scab  on  sheep, 
similar  to  the  above,  but  which  we  should  suppose  might 
answer  a  still  better  purpose ;  it  is  as  follows :  '  Take  three 
gallons  of  tar  and  three  gallons  of  train  oil,  boiled  together, 
to  which  add  three  pounds  of  roll  brimstone  finely  powdered 
and  stirred  in.'  This  quantity  is  sufficient  for  ninety  sheep. 
It  is  poured  on  with  a  pitcher  or  ladle  from  the  top  of  the 
back-bone  to  the  tail. 

When  the  object  is  solely  the  destruction  of  ticks,  a  strong 
decoction  of  tobacco  is  probably  as  good  an  application  as 
can  be  prescribed.  Lambs  often  suffer  much  from  ticks, 
after  the  sheep  are  sheared ;  as  the  ticks  which  are  driven 
from  the  old  sheep  take  refuge  with  the  lambs.  It  will, 
therefore,  be  advisable  to  apply  either  the  ointment  or  the 
tobacco  decoction  to  the  lambs  as  well  as  to  their  elders. 
And  in  all  cases  see  that  your  application  goes  to  and  spreads 
20^ 


234 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


over  the  skin  as  equallj?-  as  possible,  instead  of  wetting  or 
smearing  the  outside  surface  of  the  fleece,  where  it  will  be  of 
more  harm  than  benefit. 

On  the  Disorders  of  Sheep.  The  folloM'ing  observations 
are  extracted  from  an  Essay  on  Sheep,  written  by  H.  D. 
Grove,  a  scientific  shepherd,  who  has  been  acquainted  with 
sheep  husbandry,  as  practised  by  the  wool  growers  of  Saxony, 
France,  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 

Almost  all  the  disorders  which  attack  sheep  are  caused  by 
the  want,  and  seldom  or  never  by  the  excess  of  activity  in 
the  vital  organs.  The  nerves  are  very  susceptible,  but  sel- 
dom act  with  great  force,  and  whenever  they  are  powerfully 
excited,  this  excitement  soon  passes  off  and  leaves  the  animal 
extremely  weak.  It  follows  from  this  that  most  of  the  means 
required  for  the  cure  of  diseases  among  sheep  should  be  cal- 
culated rather  to  excite  than  to  allay  the  activity  of  the 
functions  of  life.  A  few  of  the  most  common  diseases  J>.nong 
sheep  deserve  to  be  particularly  noticed. 

The  Rot  exhibits  itself  scarcely  at  all  externally.  The 
blood  loses  its  high  color  and  tendency  to  coagulate,  and  be- 
comes watery.  The  first  perceptible  symptom  therefore  is 
the  loss  of  the  bright  red  appearance  about  the  eyes  ;  the 
lips  and  inside  of  the  mouth  also  become  pale,  as  well  as  the 
skin  generally  under  the  wool.  The  animal  continues  to  feed 
well  and  does  not  grow  poor,  although  the  natural  vivacity 
is  diminished  and  some  signs  of  weakness  occur. 

The  disease  commonly  gains  strength  in  the  winter. 
Watery  sw^ellings  are  formed,  particularly  under  the  chin, 
which  are  often  absorbed  and  then  reappear.  Soon  after 
these  the  animal  generally  dies,  without  showing  any  symp- 
toms of  violent  pain.  Ewes  attacked  by  this  disease  die 
most  commonly  about  the  time  of  dropping  their  lambs. 
The  body  on  opening  exhibits  copious  collections  of  water 
about  the  chest  and  entrails ;  the  blood  is  extremely  pale  as 
well  as  the  flesh.  This  disorder  is  unquestionably  caused 
by  feeding  in  swampy  grounds,  and  a  few  hours  are  suffi- 
cient to  fix  it  upon  a  sheep.  It  is  increased  by  damp,  foggy 
weather,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  dry  warm  weather  and 
high  pasture,  especially  where  there  are  many  aromatic 
herbs,  are  sometimes  sufficient  to  counteract  the  first  symp- 
toms and  eflfect  a  cure.  This  disorder,  however,  when  it 
has  reached  such  a  point  that  a  common  observer  may  no- 
tice the  symptoms,  is  probably  incurable.  At  a  very  early 
stage  a  cure  is  possible  if  the  flock  is  kept  carefully  on  high 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  235 

land  where  aromatic  herbs  are  abundant,  and  particularly 
among  juniper  bushes,  and  in  bad  weather  carefully  housed 
and  well  fed.  Horse-chestnuts  are  an  excellent  article  for 
fodder  in  this  case;  also  a  mixture  of  juniper  berries,  worm- 
wood, sage,  gentian,  angelica  roots,  willow  bark  and  other 
bitter  herbs,  with  a  little  salt  and  grain,  which  they  will  eat 
of  their  own  accord,  or  if  not,  it  should  be  administered  in 
small  quantities  in  the  morning  before  they  are  driven  to 
pasture.  If  the  rot  makes  its  appearance  in  a  decided  man- 
ner before  the  winter  sets  in,  it  is  useless  to  attempt  any 
thing  more  than  to  fatten  the  animal  as  soon  as  may  be  and 
sell  him  to  the  butcher.  The  rot  certainly  is  not  infectious, 
and  it  very  often  occurs  that  only  a  few  sheep  are  attacked 
in  large  flocks;  and  generally  in  such  cases,  if  the  shepherd 
is  honest,  the  disease  may  be  traced  in  every  case  to  some 
swamp  or  other  wet  place,  where  these  particular  sheep  may 
have  strayed. 

The  Mouth  and  Hoof  Distemper.  These  complaints  seem 
to  have  a  mutual  connexion,  since  the  former,  which  is  the 
mildest,  very  often  precedes  the  latter.  In  the  mouth  the 
principal  evil  to  be  feared  is  that  the  sheep  become  emaciated 
from  the  inability  to  eat.  The  best  remedy  is  to  bathe  the 
parts  afl^ected  with  a  strong  decoction  of  sage,  mixed  with 
an  equal  quantity  of  vinegar  and  a  little  honey.  If  the  blis- 
ters continue  to  spread,  half  an  ounce  of  blue  vitriol  should 
be  added  to  a  quart  of  this  mixture.  The  disorder  in  the 
hoofs  is  soon  discovered  by  lameness,  and  if  this  is  evidently 
not  produced  by  any  external  injury,  and  especipUy  if  seve- 
ral sheep  in  a  flock  are  attacked  at  the  same  time,  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  obviate  the  effects  of  this  disorder.  The 
best  remedy  is  a  poultice  of  dough  or  fat  loamy  clay,  which 
should  be  applied  to  the  foot  by  means  of  a  little  bag,  but  not 
tied  hard  to  the  ankle,  and  kept  constantly  wet  with  vine- 
gar, till  a  swelling  appears  on  the  upper  side  of  the  foot  or 
in  the  cleft  of  the  hoof.  This  should  then  be  opened  with  a 
sharp  knife  and  the  dead  hoof  pared  off!  The  wound  must 
be  washed  with  cold  water  and  sprinkled  with  dry  vitriol. 
The  lame  animals  should  remain  carefully  separated  from 
the  sound  ones,  and  the  washing  and  sprinkling  with  vitriol 
repeated  till  the  cure  is  effected.  This  disease  is  not  only 
contagious,  but  also  infectious  in  the  highest  degree,  and 
oftentimes  so  violent  as  to  produce  caries  in  the  bone  after 
the  hoof  is  destroyed. 

The  Itch  or   Scab.     This  disorder  is  dreaded  more  than 


236  THE    COMPLETE    FAEMER 

any  other,  and  did  in  fact  more  damage  in  many  districts 
than  any  other,  until  the  proper  mode  of  treatment  was  dis- 
covered. The  scab  is  certainly  contagious,  and  may  readily 
be  propagated  by  merely  touching  the  skin  of  a  healthy  ani- 
mal with  matter  from  a  pustule  on  another  sheep  ;  but  as  far 
as  my  observation  has  extended  the  infection  is  not  conveyed 
through  the  atmosphere,  though  it  often  seems  to  be  epi- 
demic, and  particularly  in  very  damp  summers,  which  aflect 
sheep  in  many  other  ways  so  unfavorably. 

It  is  discovered  by  the  animal's  constantly  rubbing  or 
scratching  itself,  and  making  at  the  same  time  a  peculiar 
motion  with  the  lips  ;  the  scabs  are  sometimes  dry  and  some- 
times moist,  and  spread  very  rapidly,  though  the  animal  con- 
tinues healthy  in  other  respects,  and  generally  more  lively 
than  before.  Afterwards,  however,  the  disorder  becomes  in- 
ternal, the  sheep  becomes  emaciated,  and  dies  from  weakness 
and  pain.  If  the  scab  is  observed  at  an  early  period  it  may 
be  easily  cured,  or  at  least  prevented  from  spreading.  One 
of  the  best  remedies  is  a  strong  decoction  of  tobacco,  to  be 
applied  to  the  diseased  parts,  after  scratching  off  the  scabs 
with  a  comb  or  other  instrument.  The  decoction  of  tobacco 
mixed  with  lime-water  and  oil  of  vitriol,  and  used  constantly 
for  some  time,  will  generally  effect  a  radical  cure  ;  another 
excellent  remedy  is  a  decoction  of  hellebore  mixed  with  vine- 
gar, sulphur,  and  spirits  of  turpentine.  Internal  remedies 
are  of  no  use  except  when  the  disorder  has  induced  other 
complaints  by  weakening  the  general  health. 

The  Sheep-Pox.  This  disorder  is  contagious  and  propa- 
gates itself  by  exhalation  from  the  sick  to  the  healthy  ani- 
mal, but  it  has  not  yet  been  discovered  how  far  these  exha- 
lations may  extend.  If,  however,  it  appears  in  a  neighbor- 
ing flock,  care  should  be  taken  to  mitigate  its  efl^ects  by  a 
general  and  careful  inoculation,  since  it  is  certain  that  the 
disorder  is  less  violent  if  taken  by  inoculation  than  in  the  natu- 
ral way.  The  operation  is  perfectly  simple  and  easy.  The 
animal  is  laid  on  its  back  and  held  by  two  or  three  men, 
while  the  operator  introduces  the  matter,  from  a  pustule  five 
or  six  days  old,  in  two  or  three  places  between  the  legs  or 
on  the  tail.  The  lancet  should  be  introduced  in  a  slanting 
direction  under  the  skin  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch,  and 
when  it  is  withdrawn,  the  skin  should  be  pressed  down  upon 
it  so  as  to  wipe  off  the  matter  and  leave  it  in  the  wound.  A 
pustule  is  formed  generally  in  four  days,  and  reaches  its 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  237 

greatest  size  en  the  sixth,  when  a  few  others  generally  ap- 
pear near  the  first. 

Soon  after  this  the  usual  symptoms  of  fever  and  general 
eruption  take  place,  which  last  is,  however,  more  regular 
and  safe  than  if  the  animal  had  taken  the  disease  without 
inoculation. 

The  only  care  necessary  during  the  progress  of  the  dis- 
order is  to  keep  the  sheep  in  a  cool  and  airy  situation.  In- 
ternal remedies  are  not  required,  but  the  sores  should  be 
often  washed  with  a  strong  infusion  of  camomile  flowers,  in 
which  a  little  blue  vitriol  has  been  peviously  dissolved,  and 
afterwards  dressed  with  a  salve  made  of  yolks  of  eggs  and 
turpentine,  mixed  with  a  little  powdered  charcoal. 

The  Reeling  Sickness  is  never  infectious,  but  generally  in- 
curable. Its  first  symptoms  are  a  weakness  in  the  gait,  and 
a  disposition  in  the  animal  affected  to  remain  separate  from 
the  flock.  The  head  is  thrown  into  an  unnatural  posture, 
generally  on  one  side.  The  animal  then  begins  to  turn  round, 
always  in  one  direction;  stumbles  and  falls  repeatedly, some- 
times with  the  head  under  the  body,  then  ceases  to  feed,  and 
soon  dies. 

Lambs  and  yearlings  only  are  usually  liable  to  this  dis- 
order, and  very  rarely  sheep  over  two  years  old.  The  seat 
of  the  disorder  is  always  to  be  discovered  on  the  brain,  where 
one  or  more  blisters  are  formed  and  filled  with  a  watery 
secretion. 

The  origin  of  this  complaint,  and  of  course  the  proper 
preventive  treatment,  remain  as  yet  undiscovered.  A  cure 
is  sometimes  effected  by  an  operation  through  the  skull  to  let 
off  the  water. 

The  first  step  in  this  case  is  to  examine  the  skull  care- 
fully in  search  of  a  soft  spot  in  the  bone,  which  usually  in- 
dicates the  spot  affected.  The  skull  is  then  perforated  with 
a  trocar,  accompanied  by  a  tube  through  which  the  water 
may  escape ;  after  which  the  tube  also  is  withdrawn  and  a 
i&\N  drops  of  the  essence  of  myrrh  applied  to  the  aperture. 
This  operation  is  sometimes  successful,  but  more  often  the 
reverse.  If  it  succeeds,  however,  in  only  one  cure  out  of 
five,  it  seems  worth  the  trial,  since  without  some  relief  the 
sheep  must  certainly  perish. 

Swelled  Paunch.  When  sheep  or  other  ruminating  ani- 
mals eat  more  than  they  can  digest,  the  food  ferments  in  the 
stomach,  emitting  great  quantities  of  gas,  u  hich  stretch  this 
organ  so  as  to  draw  together   its  apeitures,  the  paunch  be- 


238  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

comes  excessively  distended,  the  lungs  oppressed,  the  breath 
and  pulse  obstructed,  and  the  death  is  very  sudden. 

This  effect  may  be  produced  by  fodder  of  any  kind,  but 
most  readily  by  such  as  ihe  sheep  prefer,  especially  if  they 
are  not  accustomed  to  it.  Green  clover  and  lucerne  have, 
therefore,  often  been  observed  to  bring  on  this  disorder ;  but 
it  is  nevertheless  certain  that  neither  of  these  substances  are 
in  themselves  injurious,  since  I  have  known  sheep  accus- 
tomed to  them  eat  their  fill  day  after  day  for  months  together 
without  suffering  any  ill  consequence.  Any  young  green 
feed  is  more  likely  to  be  hurtful  in  this  way  than  dry  fodder, 
but  only  when  eaten  in  excess  after  long  abstinence.  If  the 
approach  of  the  swelling  is  observed  by  the  shepherd  in  sea- 
son, it  may  be  prevented  by  violent  friction  of  the  back  and 
belly  and  driving  the  sheep  rapidly.  These  remedies  are 
assisted  by  a  previous  dose  of  lime-water,  which  should 
be  repeated  half  an  hour  afterwards,  taking  care  that  the 
lime  is  good  and  not  previously  air-slacked. 

If  the  attack  is  so  violent  as  to  leave  no  time  for  these 
remedies,  an  opening  must  be  made  in  the  paunch  with  the 
trocar  and  sheath  ;  an  operation  which  cannot  easily  be  de- 
scribed, but  may  be  exhibited  without  any  difficulty  to  any 
person  unacquainted  with  it. 

I  omit  to  notice  a  great  variety  of  other  diseases  of  sheep, 
which  I  have  had  no  opportunity  of  attending  to  personally, 
and  also  the  whole  series  of  external  injuries  to  which  sheep 
are  liable,  and  in  the  treatment  of  which  each  man's  experi- 
ence is  his  best  guide. 

A  writer  for  the  New  York  Farmer  observes,  *  I  am  told 
on  credible  authority,  that  a  gentleman  who  was  losing  his 
sheep  without  apparent  cause  had  occasion  to  use  some  clay 
about  his  house  in  the  winter,  and  observed  that  his  sickly 
flock  ate  it  with  avidity ;  he  caused  a  load  to  be  placed  in 
their  yard,  much  of  which  was  devoured  and  his  sheep  speedi- 
ly recovered. 

As  a  cure,  therefore,  I  would  recommend  clay  to  be  placed 
in  the  sheep-yard,  which  can,  at  worst,  do  no  harm,  as  the 
animals  will  not  eat  it  unless  prompted  by  instinct ;  or,  when 
it  is  practicable,  the  boughs  or  branches  of  resinous  trees,  as 
the  pine  and  hemlock,  may  be  given  to  the  flock  in  limited 
quantities.  Roots  of  any  edible  kind  will  also  be  highly 
serviceable.  As  a  preventive  in  future,  I  advise  sheep-far- 
mers to  raise  and  lay  in  a  good  stock  of  ruta  baga  or  other 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  239 

turnips,  which  are  not  only  the  healthiest  but  cheapest  food 
for  the  winter  consumption  of  sheep. 

Wor?ns  in  the  head  of  Sheep.  There  exists  in  some  parts 
of  the  country  a  species  of  fly,  which  naturalists  call  asstrus 
ovis,  of  the  same  genus  with  that  which  deposits  eggs  in  the 
hair  of  horses,  and  causes  bots.  This  fly  attacks  sheep, 
from  about  the  middle  of  August  to  the  middJe  of  Septem- 
ber, deposits  its  eggs  in  the  nostrils  of  the  animals,  and  cau- 
ses those  ivorms  which  so  frequently  destroy  them.  The 
Mechanic's  Gazette  recommends  as  a  preventive,  '  covering 
the  nostrils  of  sheep  with  a  list  of  gauzy  substance,  through 
which  the  animal  can  breathe,  and  keeping  it  in  its  place  by 
some  adhesive  substance.'  We  doubt,  however,  the  practica- 
bility of  '  keeping  it  in  its  place'  by  any  '  adhesive  substance.' 
Another  preventive  which  sheep  owners  tell  us  is  effectual, 
is  to  keep  the  noses  of  the  sheep  constantly  smirched  with 
tar,  from  about  the  middle  of  August  to  the  latter  end  of 
September.  If  the  sheep  swallow  some  of  the  tar,  so  much 
the  better,  as  it  prevents  or  cures  the  rot,  and  confirms  their 
health. 

If  the  fly  has  performed  its  mischievous  function,  and  the 
seeds  of  the  disorder  are  already  sown,  you  may  make  use 
of  the  following  : 

'  Take  half  a  pound  of  good  Scotch  snuff,  pour  two  quarts 
of  boiling  water  on  it,  stir  it  and  let  it  stand  till  cold ;  inject 
about  a  table-spoonful  of  this  liquid  and  sediment  up  each 
nostril  of  the  sheep  with  a  syringe.  This  must  be  repeated 
three  or  four  times  at  proper  intervals,  from  the  middle  of 
October  to  the  first  of  January  ;  the  grubs  are  then  small 
and  are  much  easier  destroyed  than  afterwards,  and  have  not 
injured  the  sheep,  as  they  will  if  deferred  until  later.  Half 
an  ounce  of  assafcetida,  pounded  in  a  little  water  and  added 
to  the  snuff,  will  make  it  more  effectual.  The  owner  of  the 
sheep  need  not  be  alarmed,  when  the  operation  is  performed, 
to  see  the  sheep  very  drunk  and  apparently  in  the  agonies 
of  death,  as  they  will  in  a  few  minutes  recover.  I  never 
knew  any  bad  effects  to  follow.  Dry  snuff  may  be  blown  up 
the  nose  with  a  quill,  and  have  a  good  effect  ;  but  it  is  a  te- 
dious, dirty  job.  I  have  tried  vinegar  and  blue  die  with  but 
little  or  no  success.' 

Instead  of  '  Scotch  snuff,'  a  decoction  of  tobacco  will 
answer  the  purpose.  A  gentleman  who  owns  a  large  flock 
of  sheep,  informs  us  that  he  had  used  it  with  perfect  success. 
Spirits  of  turpentine  have  been  injected  into  the  nostrils  of 


240  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

sheep,  as  a  remedy  for  worms ;  but  that  substance  appears  to 
possess  one  materia]  dijad vantage,  which  should  preclude  its 
use  for  that  purpose,  viz.  when  thrown  into  the  nostrils  it 
kills  the  sheeji  as  well  as  the  worms. 

Mr.  Alexander  Reed,  of  Washington,  Pennsylvania,  in  an 
article  on  the  management  of  sheep,  published  in  the  New 
England  Farmer,  vol.  iii.  p.  60,  observed  that  daubing  the 
sheep's  nose  with  tar  is  considered  as  a  protection  against 
this  enemy.  What  experience  I  have  had  is  rather  calculat- 
ed to  strengthen  this  opinion.  I  have  always  made  free  use 
of  tar  among  my  sheep,  and  I  do  not  know  that  I  ever  lost 
one  by  the  worms  in  the  head. 

It  is  said  by  some  writers  that  if  sheep  are  kept  in  good 
conditioii  tiiere  is  no  danger  of  their  suffering  greatly  from 
worms  in  the  head  ;  as  they  will  be  strong  enough  to  expel 
the  insects  by  sneezing.  This  may  be,  but  still,  the  applica- 
tion of  tar  to  the  noses  of  the  animals  would  prove  servicea- 
ble by  preventing  their  being  teased  by  the  fly,  which  causes 
great  pain  and  distress  at  the  time  the  nits  are  deposited,  as 
well  as  eventuates  in  the  disease  of  the  shoep. 


HORSE,  one  of  the  most  useful  of  tame  quadrupeds. 
The  marks  or  evidences  of  a  good  one  are  these  :  a  high  neck, 
a  full  breast,  a  lively  eye,  a  strong  back,  a  stiff  dock,  full  but- 
tocks, ribs  reaching  near  to  the  hips,  well-made  hoofs,  rather 
large,  and  a  good  gait. 

The  size  of  a  horse  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  work 
in  which  he  is  chiefly  to  be  employed.  Small  sized  ones 
often  prove  ffood  in  the  saddle.  They  are  apt  to  be  hardy, 
and  in  proportion  to  their  size,  and  the  quantity  of  their  eat- 
ing, usually  are  the  most  profitable.  Plough  horses,  and  all 
draught  horses,  should  be  large,  as  their  weight  is  of  impor- 
tance in  drawing ;  as  it  is  often  inconvenient  to  put  two 
horses  to  one  plough,  especially  in  horse  hoeing.  Largeness 
is  also  of  importance,  when  they  are  used  single,  in  journey- 
ing, as  they  most  usually  are,  in  a  chaise  or  sleigh. 

A  horse's  manner  of  going  is  a  matter  of  no  small  impor- 
tance. The  ambling  gait,  or  what  in  this  country  is  vul- 
garly called  pacing,  is  not  good,  neither  for  the  horse  nor  the 
rider.  It  is  tiresome  to  both.  It  habituates  a  horse  to  carry 
his  feet  too  near  to  the  ground,  so  that  he  is  the  more  liable 
to  trip  and  stumble. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  241 

The  method  so  much  practised  formerly  in  this  country, 
of  teaching  liorses  to  pace  swiftly,  and  racing  in  that  gait,  is 
highly  pernicious.  It  puts  them  to  a  much  greater  strain 
than  running  ;  and  numbers  have  been  thus  ruined.  Some 
colts  naturally  amble,  and  others  trot.  But  all  may  be  made 
to  trot,  if  due  care  and  pains  be  taken  with  them  while  they 
are  young,  or  as  soon  as  they  are  first  ridden.  In  a  carriage 
an  amble  is  tiresome  to  a  horse,  appears  highly  improper,  and 
is  disgusting  to  every  one ;  and  I  do  not  see  why  it  should 
appear  at  all  more  tolerable  in  the  saddle. 

When  any  change  of  gait  is  wanted  for  the  ease  of  the 
rider,  the  canter  is  to  be  preferred,  than  which  none  can  be 
more  easy. 

The  way  of  breaking  a  young  horse  that  is  mostly  used  in 
this  country  is  highly  absurd,  hurtful,  and  dangerous.  He 
is  mounted  and  ridden  before  he  has  been  used  to  the  bridle 
or  to  bearing  any  weight  on  his  back.  If  he  will  not  go  for- 
ward, he  is  most  unmercifully  beaten  ;  by  which  his  spirits 
are  broken  and  his  strength  impaired.  If  he  rears  up,  he  is 
pulled  backwards,  with  the  risk  of  hurting  both  horse  and 
man.  If  he  runs  and  starts,  as  he  probably  will  under  such 
management,  he  flings  the  rider,  perhaps  is  frightened,  gains 
his  liberty,  and  is  encouraged  to  do  just  so  the  next  opportu- 
nity ;  and  the  unfortunate  rider  blesses  himself,  as  he  has 
reason  to  do,  if  he  escapes  without  broken  limbs.  Or  if 
the  horse  should  chance  to  go  kindly,  the  rider  continues 
the  exercise  till  the  horse  is  fatigued,  discouraged,  and  injured. 

Instead  of  this  niv^d  management,  the  way  practised  in  the 
older  countries  should  be  adopted.  Let  a  horse  first  of  all 
be  tamed  with  the  bridle,  by  leading  him  again  and  again  ; 
in  the  first  place,  after  or  by  the  side  of  another  horse ;  and 
after  he  walks  well,  bring  him  to  trot  after  his  leader.  In 
the  next  place,  put  on  the  saddle,  and  lead  him  in  that,  time 
after  time.  Then  lay  a  small  weight  on  the  saddle,  and  if 
he  be  apt  to  start,  fasten  it,  that  it  may  not  be  flung  off;  in- 
creasing the  weight  from  time  to  time,  till  he  learns  to  carry 
what  is  equal  to  a  man's  weight.  Lastly,  let  a  man  gently 
mount  him,  while  another  holds  him  by  the  bridle,  and  fix 
himself  firmly  on  the  saddle.  The  place  of  riding  is  recom- 
mended to  be  a  ploughed  field.  Let  him  thus  be  ridden  with 
a  horse  going  before  iiim,  till  he  learn  the  use  of  the  bit,  and 
will  stop  or  go  forward  at  the  pleasure  of  the  rider,  and 
without  the  application  of  much  force.  Being  exercised  in 
this  manner  a  few  times,  and  treated  with  all  possible  gentle- 
21 


242  THE    COMPLETE  FARMER 

ness,  there  will  be  no  more  occasion  for  leading  him.  He 
will  go  well  of  himself;  and  be  thoroughly  broken,  without 
so  much  as  giving  him  one  blow,  and  without  danger  or 
fatigue  to  the  horse  or  his  rider.  And,  what  is  much  to  be 
regarded,  the  horse's  spirits  will  be  preserved,  though  he  be 
sufficiently  tamed.  In  teaching  a  horse  to  draw,  gentleness 
must  be  used.  He  should  be  tried  first  in  company  with 
other  horses,  whether  in  carting  or  ploughing ;  and  the 
draught  should  not  be  so  heavy  as  to  fret  him  or  put  him  to 
great  exertion  till  he  has  learned  to  draw  steadily.  Aft?r 
this  he  may  be  put  to  draw  light  loads  by  himself.  Lastly 
he  may  be  put  to  a  pleasure  carriage,  but  coupled  with 
another  rather  than  alone,  and  to  a  sleigh  rather  than  a 
chaise. 

It-  may  be  taken  for  a  general  rule,  that  the  gait  which  is 
easiest  to  a  horse  will  be  the  easiest  to  his  rider;  for  jaded 
horses,  it  has  always  been  observed,  are  apt  to  go  hard,  and 
to  tire  their  riders. 

The  feeding  of  horses,  as  I  conceive,  has  not  been  suffi- 
ciently attended  to  in  this  country ;  which  is,  doubtless,  one 
reason  why  they  are  in  general  so  mean  and  despicable. 
Too  many  keep  horses  who  cannot  well  aftbrd  to  feed  them. 
They  should  neither  run  upon  the  roads  and  commons,  nor 
in  pastures  that  are  filled  with  wild  and  water  grasses.  They 
love  a  dry  pasture,  not  too  much  shaded,  and  short  grasses 
of  the  best'  kinds.  Clover  and  white  honey-suckle,  both 
green  and  dry,  are  excellent  food  for  them.  It  nourishes 
them  well,  and  prevents  costiveness,  which  is  very  hurtful  to 
them.  The  best  of  clover  hay  will  keep  them  as  well  as 
most  other  kinds  of  hay  with  oats. 

To  fit  a  horse  for  a  journey  he  should  not  be  suffered  to 
grow  too  fat  and  gross.  He  should  for  some  time  be  kept  in 
the  stable  rather  than  in  the  pasture,  and  fed  mostly  with 
hay  and  provender  ;  but  rather  sparingly  if  he  incline  to  be 
fat.  He  should  have  exercise  daily,  to  harden  his  flesh  and 
keep  him  in  the  habit  of  travelling.  He  should  be  shod  some 
days  before  he  begins  a  journey,  that  the  shoes  may  be  well  set- 
tled to  his  feet,  and  the  nails  a  little  rusted  at  the  points,  that 
they  may  hold  the  faster.  And  the  pads  of  the  saddle  should 
be  well  fitted  to  his  back,  so  as  to  fill  the  hollows,  and  bear 
equally  on  every  part.  And  while  he  is  on  the  journey,  he 
should  be  stabled  every  night.  It  is  destructive  to  expose  a 
horse  to  the  dampness  and  cold  of  the  night  after  severe  ex- 
ercise.    But  it  would  be  best  if  neither  horses  nor  any  of 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  243 

our  cattle  were  wholly  confined  to  dry  meat  in  winter. 
Horses  indicate  this  by  their  eating  snow  with  their  hay. 
Set  a  basket  of  snow  within  reach  of  a  horse,  when  he  is  at 
his  manger,  and  he  will  take  a  mouthful  from  each  alternate- 
ly. Of  all  juicy  food  for  horses  in  winter,  writers  on  hus- 
bandry seem  to  give  carrots  the  preference.  They  have  been 
found  by  experience  to  answer  well  instead  of  oats  for  labor- 
ins;  horses;  and  to  fatten  those  which  are  lean. 

He  that  would  be  sure  to  keep  his  horse  in  good  order 
must  beware  whom  he  suffers  to  ride  him,  and  must  see  that 
he  is  never  abused.  Profuse  sweating  should  always  be 
avoided.  And  when  a  horse  is  much  warmed  by  exercise 
he  should  not  be  exposed  to  cold  air  nor  night  dew,  and 
much  less  to  rain  and  snow.  If  he  cannot  be  instantly  rubbed 
down  and  housed  when  warm,  he  should  be  covered  with  a 
blanket ;  and  he  should  always  have  a  dry  stable,  and  be 
well  littered.  The  neglect  of  these  precautions  may  bring 
on  incurable  disorders. 

Horses  should  not  be  too  much  deprived  of  the  liberty  of 
motion,  as  they  too  often  are.  Close  confinement  after  hard 
labor  will  be  apt  to  abate  their  circulations  too  suddenly, 
make  them  chilly,  and  stiffen  their  joints.  To  be  deprived 
•  '"  motion  is  bad  for  man  and  beast.  Horses  therefore  should 
not  be  straitened  for  room  in  their  stables.  Stables  should 
not  be  so  low  as  to  prevent  their  tossing  up  their  heads  as 
high  as  they  please.  Some  stables  have  so  little  room  over 
head  as  to  bring  horses  into  a  habit  of  carrying  their  heads 
too  low ;  they  become  afraid  to  lift  them  up.  They  should 
also  have  room  in  their  stables  to  turn  their  heads  to  any 
part  of  their  bodies,  that  they  may  defend  themselves  from 
the  biting  of  insects,  allay  itching,  &c.  And  their  halters 
should  always  be  so  long,  and  their  stable  so  wide,  that  they 
may  lie  down  conveniently.  Nor  should  horses  be  so  placed 
as  to  be  able  to  deprive  each  other  of  his  fodder. 

When  horses  are  kept  in  stables,  as  they  generally  are  in 
the  coldest  half  of  the  year,  they  should  be  daily  dressed,  as 
it  is  called.  The  curry-comb  and  the  brush  should  be  \vell 
used  on  all  parts  of  their  skin  which  are  covered  v/ith  hair. 
This  increases  perspiration  through  the  pores  of  the  skin, 
which  is  necessary  to  health  ;  and  causes  the  blood  to  move 
faster  in  the  veins.  This  treatment  will  not  only  cause  them 
to  look  better,  but  they  \v\\\  have  better  health,  and  more 
activity  and  courage.  They  will  digest  their  food  better, 
and  be  better  for  service.     But  if  rubbing  and  friction   be 


244  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

wholly  neglected,  or  slightly  performed,  the  hair  will  appear 
dry  and  rough  ;  the  perspirable  matter  hardens  in  the  pores 
of  the  skin,  or  remains  lodged  at  the  roots  of  the  hair,  and 
has  the  appearance  of  a  dirty  white  dust,  and  sometimes 
like  small  scales,  attended  with  itching.  More  especially  is 
rubbincT-  necessary  for  horses  when  they  are  growing  cold 
after  being  sweated  by  labor.  In  such  cases  it  should  never 
be  omitted. 

Columella  observes,  'that  the  bodies  of  cattle  ought  to  be 
rubSed  down  daily,  as  well  as  the  bodies  of  men  ;  and  says 
it  often  does  them  more  good  to  have  their  backs  well  rub- 
bed down,  than  their  bellies  well  filled  with  provender.' 

But  in  warm  weather  it  would  be  best  for  them,  that  they 
should  not  have  the  confinement  of  the  halter,  nor  even  of 
the  stable.  A  small  spot  of  feeding  ground,  if  it  were  only 
a  few  rods,  adjoining  to  the  stable,  and  the  door  left  open, 
that  a  horse  may  go  in  and  out  alternately  as  he  pleases, 
would  greatly  conduce  to  the  health  of  the  animal.  This 
degree  of  liberty  will  be  most  needful  when  the  flies  are 
troublesome;  and  be  better  for  him  than  confinement  to  a 
stable  that  is  perfectly  dark.  In  fly  time  it  gives  a  horse 
much  ease  and  comfort  to  smear  his  limbs,  neck,  and  head, 
with  rancid  fish  oil,  or  something  else  that  will  keep  the  flies 
from  attacking  him.  And  in  all  seasons,  when  horses  have 
been  heated  with  exercise,  they  should  be  well  rubbed  or 
curried. 

When  a  horse  runs  in  a  pasture  during  the  grass  season, 
he  should  have  some  shelter,  not  only  a  shade  to  defend  him 
from  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun,  but  a  shed,  or  a  clump  of 
trees,  that  he  may  retreat  from  the  inclemencies  of  the  atmos- 
phere. 

But  horses  that  are  daily  worked  in  summer  should  be 
mostly  kept  upon  green  fodder  in  stables,  rather  than  grazed 
in  pastures.  The  tendance  of  them  will  not  he  so  burden- 
some, with  a  spot  of  high  and  thick  grass  at  hand,  as  lead- 
ing them  to  and  from  a  pasture,  at  the  distance  of  a  quarter 
of  a  mile.  This  will  prevent  their  being  often  chil'ed  by 
feeding  in  wet  nights.  A  large  quantity  of  manure  will  thus 
be  saved.  And  a  very  small  quantity  of  land  will  answer, 
in  comparison  with  what  it  takes  for  the  pasturing  of  a 
horse.  Keeping  a  scythe  and  a  basket  at  hand,  a  h»  rse 
may  be  foddered  in  this  way  in  two  or  three  minutes ;  and 
by  the  time  that  the  whole  spot  has  been  once  mowed  over, 
that  which  is  first  cut  will  be   grown  up   again.     Where  a 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  245 

mumber  of  horses  are  soiled,  a  pair  of  poles,  or  a  hand-cart, 
will  be  better  than  a  basket  to  carry  the  hay  to  them.  This 
practice,  called  soiling,  answers  well  near  cities  and  large 
towns,  where  lands  for  pasturage  are  not  plenty  ;  and  where, 
by  means  of  the  plenty  of  manure,  lands  may  be  made  to 
yield  the  greatest  crops  of  grass.  For  very  thick  grass 
should  not  be  fed  off;  because  the  greater  part  of  it  will  be 
wasted  by  the  trampling  and  the  excrements  of  animals. 

When  grain  is  given  to  horses  it  is  an  economical  practice 
to  have  it  either  ground  or  boiled.  When  horses  are  soiled, 
or  fed  in  a  stable  on  green  grass,  it  should  be  cut  and  carried 
in  during  the  morning  while  the  dew  is  on. 

A  disorder,  called  'ptyalism,  has  for  some  years  past  been 
gaining  ground  among  horses  in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States,  which  is  an  excessive  watering  or  slavering  at  the 
mouth.  Various  causes  have  been  assigned  for  this  disorder, 
but  none  of  them  satisfactory.  Soiling  them  is,  however,  a 
certain  remedy. 

The  following  remarks  on  the  diseases  of  the  horse  were 
written  by  Dr.  J.  B.  Brown,  of  Boston,  and  were  first  pub- 
lished in  the  New  England  Journal  of  Medicine  and  Surgery. 

A  knowledge  of  the  diseases  of  animals,  in  general,  cannot 
be  inferred  from  a  knowledge  of  the  diseases  of  any  one  par- 
ticular species  of  animals. 

Thus  he  who  is  acquainted  with  the  diseases  of  the  horse 
would  not  from  that  circumstance  be  able  to  prescribe  cor- 
rectly for  the  disea.ses  of  quadrupeds  generally.  The  anato- 
my and  physiology  of  animals  differ.  For  example,  the  dog 
has  no  insensible  perspiration.  The  mouth  of  the  horse  per- 
forms but  one  office,  that  of  conveying  food  to  the  stomach. 
It  conveys  nothing  to  the  lungs,  or  from  them.  It  has  no- 
thing to  do  with  the  modulation  of  his  voice,  as  in  most 
quadrupeds  and  in  man.  The  passages  to  the  lungs  and  to 
the  stomach  in  the  horse  are  distinct. 

The  horse,  unlike  most  other  quadrupeds,  has  no  gall- 
bladder, notwithstanding  a  work  which  has  been  through 
twelve  editions,  and  one  at  least  in  this  country,  (Taplin's 
Farriery,)  gives  a  particular  description  of  the  diseases  of  the 
gall-bladder,  and  the  symptoms  of  those  diseases. 

It  has  been  stated  above,  that  the  anatomy  and  physiology 
of  animals  differ ;  so  also  do  their  diseases. 

The  horse  is  not  subject  to  fever,  that  is,  he  has  no  simple, 
idiopathic  fever,  no  cold,  hot,  and  sweating  stage,  as  man 
has.  The  feverish  action  which  the  heart  and  arteries  of 
21# 


246  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

the  horse  sometimes  assume  is  sympathetic,  and  is  always 
preceded  by  some  local  affection.  It  is  a  disease  of  irrita- 
tion. 

The  eyes  of  the  horse  are  subject  to  a  species  of  cataract, 
that  affects  no  other  animal.  It  arises  from  a  constitutional 
disease,  brought  on  by  bad  stabling.  It  is  never  produced 
by  local  injury.  This  species  of  cataract  commences  with 
an  inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva,  without  any  apparent 
cause.  Local  applications  have  no  effect  in  removing  it. 
The  only  rational  method  of  treating  it  is  to  remove,  if  possi- 
ble, the  constitutional  disease,  and  improve  the  health  and 
condition  of  the  animal. 

Oxen  and  cows  have  the  disease  called  bots  in  their  skin, 
but  in  the  horse  this  disease  (if  it  may  be  so  called)  is  con- 
fined to  the  stomach. 

Farcy  and  glanders,  I  believe,  are  diseases  peculiar  to  the 
horse.  I  know  of  no  other  animal  subject  to  them.  They 
are  contagious  diseases,  but  may  be  produced  without  con- 
tagion, by  bad  stabling.  The  poisonous  matter  of  farcy  will 
produce  glanders,  and  vice  versa.  Farcy  is  now  ascertained 
to  be  a  disease  of  the  superficial  absorbents ;  whereas  in  all 
the  old  books  on  the  veterinary  art  it  is  represented  as  a 
disease  of  the  veins. 

A  horse  glandered  has  the  whole  mass  of  blood  contami- 
nated. This  may  be  considered  by  medical  gentlemen  as  an 
important  fact,  as  it  goes  to  prove  the  doctrine  of  humoral 
pathology.  That  the  whole  mass  of  blood  is  diseased,  in  a 
horse  affected  with  glanders,  has  been  proved  by  the  follow- 
ing experiment,  made  by  Mr.  Colman,  professor  at  the  Vete- 
rinary Institution,  England. 

He  took  a  young,  healthy  ass,  an  animal,  as  he  states, 
peculiarly  susceptible  of  the  disease,  and  introduced  a  pipe 
having  a  stop- cock  into  the  jugular  vein,  united  by  means 
of  an  ureter  to  another  pipe,  which  he  introduced  into  the 
carotid  artery  of  a  glandered  horse.  He  then  bled  the  ass 
to  death  by  opening  his  carotid  artery,  and  turning  the  stop- 
cock, admitted  the  blood  of  the  horse  into  his  vessels,  and 
resuscitated  him.  The  result  was,  that  the  ass  became 
violently  glandered  He  inoculated  other  asses  from  the 
matter  produced  in  him,  and  was  able  to  carry  on  the  same 
disease. 

Corns  in  the  feet  of  horses  are  very  unlike  corns  on  the 
feet  of  the  human  subject.  There  is  nothing  which  grows 
in  the  feet  of  horses  that  constitutes  corns.     There  is  no  in- 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  247 

crease  of  substance.  Corns  in  the  feet  of  horses  are  mere 
bruises.  Every  body  has  seen  or  experienced  the  effects  of 
bruises  upon  the  human  nail.  Corns  in  the  feet  of  horses 
are  injuries  of  a  similar  nature.  The  red  appearance  which 
they  have  is  caused  by  an  extravasation  of  blood,  which 
spreads  itself  among  the  fibres  of  the  horny  hoof.  Corns 
are  generally  occasioned  by  the  shoe.  They  may,  however, 
arise  from  other  injuries.  They  are  easily  cured  by  suitable 
remedies  and  a  proper  mode  of  shoeing,  unless  the  inflam- 
mation occasioned  by  the  injury  has  been  of  long  standing, 
and  assumed  a  chronic  character.  In  this  case,  the  cure  is 
more  tedious. 

Horse-ail.  I  will  take  this  opportunity  to  make  a  few  re- 
marks on  the  nature  of  this  complaint. 

Strictly  speaking,  all  diseases  of  horses  are  horse-ails  ;  but 
custom  has  given  this  epithet  to  a  species  of  disease  very 
common  among  our  horses.  The  disease  referred  to  is  called 
strangles  in  most  of  the  old  books  on  farriery.  It  consists 
in  an  inflammation  of  the  membrane  lining  the  nose  and  the 
arytGenoid  cartilages.  This  disease  is  accompanied  by  a 
cough  and  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  The  cough  is  sym- 
pathetic, and  is  produced  by  the  extreme  sensibility  of  the 
membrane  thus  inflamed.  The  lightest  dust,  or  eveii  a  drop 
of  water  lodged  upon  this  membrane,  in  this  irritable  state, 
produces  coughing.  The  inflammation  sometimes  extends  to 
the  lungs,  and  then  this  disease  is  accompanied  with  a  dis- 
ease of  the  chest,  and  requires  speedy  and  energetic  treat- 
ment, as  inflammation  of  the  lungs  in  the  horse  is  apt  to  ter- 
minate speedily  in  gangrene.  Copious  bleeding,  from  six  to 
ten  quarts  at  first,  and  smaller  bleedings  afterwards,  as  the 
state  of  the  case  may  require,  and  small  doses  of  aloes,  from 
one  to  two  drachms,  given  daily,  have  been  found  the  most 
successful  remedies  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs.  Drastic 
purgatives  should  be  avoided,  as  they  increase  the  irritation 
and  put  the  life  of  the  horse  in  extreme  hazard. 

It  has  been  stated  above,  that  the  diseases  of  animals  dif- 
fer as  much  as  their  anatomy  and  physiology.  The  specific 
effect  of  medicine  upon  different  animals  is  no  less  various 
than  their  structure  and  diseases. 

Glauber  salts,  in  doses  of  one  pound,  operate  on  the  ox  as 
a  cathartic,  but  on  the  horse  they  operate  principally  as  a 
diuretic.  Castor-oil  does  not  operate  on  the  horse  as  a  pur- 
gative, any  more  than  train-oil  or  any  other  oil. 

Opium  does  not  produce  its  specific  effect  upon  the  horse. 


248  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

It  operates  merely  as  an  astringent.  It  has  no  anodyne 
effect,  as  it  has  upon  man.  It  will  not  mitigate  pain.  It  is 
unfortunate  that  most  writers  on  the  veterinary  art  have 
copied  from  each  other,  and  have  recommended  medicines 
for  the  horse  which  are  known  to  be  useful  to  men.  Thus 
calomel,  rhubarb,  and  colocynth,  have  been  recommended  as 
purgatives  for  horses,  whereas  they  are  now  known  to  have 
no  such  effect  on  that  animal. 

Bark  produces  no  sensible  effect  upon  the  horse. 

There  are  no  medicines  that  operate  on  the  horse  as  ipe- 
cacuanha and  tartar  emetic  do  upon  the  human  subject. 

Tartar  emetic,  in  doses  of  four  ounces,  will  sometimes  oc- 
casion a  little  nausea  and  purging,  but  in  smaller  doses  it 
has  no  sensible  effect.  No  preparation  of  mercury  will  pro- 
duce salivation  in  the  horse.  His  gums  may  be  made  sore 
by  mercury,  but  ptyalism  cannot  be  produced  by  it. 

Sugar  of  lead,  which  is  known  to  be  a  most  deadly  poison 
to  man,  the  horse  can  take  without  injury.  Tobacco  has  no 
deleterious  effect  upon  the  horse. 

Hellebore,  in  doses  of  half  a  drachm,  produces  a  tendency 
to  nausea  in  the  horse.  Hemlock  is  good  food  for  goats,  but 
a  deadly  poison  to  man;  and  wheat,  the  natural  food  for 
man,  is  poison  to  the  horse.  Spirit  of  turpentine,  which  an 
infant  may  handle  without  injury,  operates  as  caustic  when 
applied  to  the  skin  of  a  horse,  although  it  may  be  applied  to 
sores  and  fungous  flesh  on  that  animal  without  producing 
pain. — N.  E.  Journal  of  Medicine  and  Surgery. 

The  following  judicious  remarks  on  the  management  and 
diseases  of  horses,  &c.,  are  taken  from  an  English  publi- 
cation. 

The  Stable.  As  the  preservation  of  health  ought  to  be 
considered  as  an  object  of  equal,  if  not  superior,  importance 
to  that  of  curing  or  alleviating  disease,  and  as  it  can  only 
be  accomplished  by  a  proper  management  of  the  horse  with 
respect  to  fee<iing,  exercise,  and  the  general  economy  of  the 
stable,  I  think  it  proper  to  begin  with  this  subject. 

In  the  construction  of  a  stable  there  is,  perhaps,  no  cir- 
cumstance more  deserving  attention  than  that  of  ventilation, 
or  of  having  contrivances  for  the  ready  admission  of  fresh 
air,  and  for  the  escape  of  that  which  has  been  rendered  im- 
pure by  breathing  ;  and  it  is  really  extraordinary  that  so 
little  attention  should  have  been  paid  to  so  important  a  cir- 
cumstance. Grooms  in  general  make  a  point  of  closing  eve- 
ry aperture  they  can  find ;  and  if,  at  any  time,  they  are  pre- 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  249 

vailed  upon  to  open  a  window,  it  is  comnionlj^  so  small,  and 
so  inconveniently  situated,  as  to  be  but  of  little  service. 
Let  any  one  for  a  moment  consider  how  foul  an  atmcsplicre 
must  be  produced  in  a  close  stable,  in  whicli  several  horses 
are  kept,  by  the  constant  exhalation  of  miwholesome  vapors 
from  the  litter,  by  the  steams  of  perspiration  from  the  skin, 
and  by  noxious  airs  from  the  lungs,  and  he  will  not  be  sur- 
prised at  the  long  catalogue  of  diseases  to  which  this  impro- 
per treatment  must  subject  these  useful  animals. 

If  a  doubt  remain  in  the  mind  of  any  one  as  to  the  im- 
propriety of  such  close  stables,  let  him  enter  one  early  in 
the  morning,  on  its  being  first  opened,  and  he  will  experi- 
ence such  a  painful  sensation  in  the  eyes,  and  so  violent  a 
cough,  as  will  afford  him  the  most  convincing  proof  of  the 
noxious  and  stimulating  nature  of  such  an  atmosphere  ;  yet 
such  is  the  obstinacy  and  ignorance  of  grooms  in  general, 
that  they  cannot  be  prevailed  upon  to  abandon  this  in- 
jurious practice.  Even  at  this  time  stables  are  generally 
built  too  low,  and  unprovided  with  effectual  means  of  ven- 
tilation. 

A  stable  should  be  as  lofty  as  it  can  be  made  conveniently, 
at  least  twelve  feet  ;  the  foul  air  will  then  circulate  in  the 
higher  parts,  and  the  animal  will  not  be  constantly  breathing 
an  unwholesome  atmosphere,  which  he  must  do  when  the 
ceiling  is  scarcely  higher  than  his  head.  Proper  apertures 
must  be  also  made  in  the  ceiling,  communicating  with  the 
atmosphere  by  square  wooden  tubes,  so  contrived  as  not  to 
admit  the  rain  into  stables  ;  the  foul  air  and  other  unwhole- 
some vapors  will  then  readily  pass  off,  while  a  proper  quan- 
tity of  fresh  air  may  be  admitted  by  means  ol'  windows. 
The  next  circumstance  to  be  attended  to  is  nearly  connected 
with,  and  not  less  important  than  ventilation  ;  namely,  the 
so  constructing  a  stable  as  to  be  able  to  regulate  its  tem- 
perature, or  keep  the  air  at  any  degree  of  heat  that  may  be 
thought  proper.  It  is  generally  allowed,  that  a  uniform  tem- 
perature in  a  stable  is  very  desirable;  and  it  is  certain,  that 
many  of  the  diseases  of  horses  are  caused  by  sudden  changes 
in  this  respect.  Even  slight  variations  of  temperature,  if 
frequent,  are  injurious ;  yet  few  stables  are  to  bo  found 
where  this  inconvenience  is  efTectu ally  guarded  against.  To 
accomplish  this  desirable  purpose,  the  windows  should  be  in 
different  sides,  so  that  when  a  cold  wind  blows  from  any 
point  it  may  be  shut  out,  while  fresh  air  is  admitted  by  the 
opposite  window.     There  should  be  several  of  the  apertures 


250  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

we  have  described  in  the  ceiling,  that  they  may  be  occasion- 
ally shut,  either  wholly  or  partially,  so  that,  by  means  of 
these  and  the  windows,  the  temperature  can  at  any  season 
be  easily  regulated,  according  to  the  weather  or  state  of  the 
horse's  health,  more  accurately  if  a  thermometer  be  kept ; 
an  instrument  which  appears  to  be  a  necessary  appendage  to 
a  well-conducted  stable.  If,  during  the  cold  days  of  winter, 
the  contrivance  we  have  proposed  should  be  found  insuffi- 
cient to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  stable  to  the  desired 
point,  the  air  may  be  easily  warmed  to  any  degree  by  means 
of  stoves  placed  on  the  outside,  with  iron  chimneys  passing 
through  the  stable.  It  maybe  placed  in  the  saddle-room : 
this,  however,  is  scarcely  necessary. 

Light  is  also  a  tiling  of  much  importance  in  the  construc- 
tion of  a  stable  ;  and,  for  the  purpose  of  admitting  it  readily 
to  every  part,  the  windows  should  be  large  and  properly 
placed. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  eyes  of  horses  are  often  in- 
jured by  dark  stables  ;  and  when  a  horse  is  just  taken  from 
a  dark  situation,  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  light  at  first  irri- 
tates the  eye  and  gives  pain  ;  and  this  is  more  remarkable 
when  he  is  brought  suddenly  into  the  sunshine;  nor  is  it  to  be 
wondered  at,  that  so  delicate  an  organ  as  the  eye  should 
suffer  materially  from  the  frequent  repetition  of  this  sudden 
change. 

Though  a  light  stable  is  desirable,  the  sunshine  should 
not  be  allov/ed  to  fall  on  the  eyes  of  a  horse  as  he  stands  in 
his  stall  ;  nor  should  the  wails  or  ceiling  be  of  a  white  color, 
as,  under  such  circumstances,  the  eyes  would  be  over  stimu- 
lated and  rendered  weak  :  and  when  it  is  considered  how  lia- 
ble horses  are  to  diseases  of  these  organs,  and  how  frequent- 
ly they  terminate  in  blindness,  no  one  will  think  any  circum- 
stance tending  to  their  preservation  too  trifling  to  be  noticed. 
With  regard  to  the  best  color  for  the  walls  and  ceiling,  a 
stone  or  dove  color  is  perhaps  to  be  preferred,  and  may  be 
made  by  mixing  a  little  lampblack,  ivory-black,  or  blue- 
black  with  the  common  white-wash. 

The  door  should  be  larger  and  higher  than  we  usually  see 
it ;  for  horses  are  very  liable,  in  passing  through  a  narrow 
or  low  one,  to  strike  their  hips  or  heads.  I  have  seen  some 
troublesome  accidents  happen  in  this  way  ;  besides,  even  if 
the  hair  be  struck  off  about  the  hips,  it  is  thought  a  blemish, 
because  it  may  not  grow  again  ;  or,  if  it  do  grow,  the  hair 
may  be  white. 


AND    RURAL   ECONOMIST.  251 

In  fitting  up  the  interior  of  a  stable,  particular  attention 
must  be  paid  to  the  size  of  the  stalls,  which  should  not  be 
less  than  six  feet  wide,  and  the  sides  sufficiently  high  to  pre- 
vent any  sort  of  contact  or  communication  between  the 
horses.  I  know  it  will  be  urged  as  an  argument  against 
this,  that  they  are  sociable  animals,  and  thrive  better  with 
a  companion  than  when  alone  ;  this  is  certain'y  true  :  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  I  am  convinced,  from  long  observation, 
that  horses  do  not  feel  themselves  in  solitude  when  they  are 
thus  prevented  from  touching  or  playing  with  their  neigh- 
bors ;  besides,  if  we  consider  the  numerous  accidents  that 
happen  from  low  stalls,  how  frequently  they  kick  or  bite, 
and  otherwise  injure  each  other,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  I 
think,  of  the  superior  advantage  of  high  stalls. 

The  stalls  should  also  be  of  considerable  depth,  that  a 
horse  may  not,  by  drawing  back,  have  the  power  of  kicking 
those  in  the  adjoining  stalls. 

The  floor  of  the  stall  should  be  made  of  hard  brick,  as  a 
more  equal  surface  is  then  formed  than  can  be  obtained  by 
paving  with  pebbles.  Very  little  declivity  is  necessary  to 
drain  off  the  urine ;  and  as  great  inconvenience  sometimes 
arises  from  suffering  a  horse  to  stand  in  a  stall  where  the 
fall  is  considerable,  creating  unnecessary  exertion  in  the 
muscles  of  the  hind  leg,  and  keeping  the  ligaments  constant- 
ly in  a  tense  state,  it  has  been  recommended  to  make  the 
drain  in  the  middle  of  the  stall,  whereby  the  hind  and  fore 
feet  of  the  horse  might  stand  on  a  level.  In  whatever  way, 
however,  the  stall  is  made,  it  should  be  carefully  cleaned 
twice  a  day,  that  none  of  that  putrescent  matter  may  accu- 
mulate which  generates  ammonia,  or  that  pungent  vapor 
which  is  so  abundantly  found  in  close,  filthy  stables.  An 
iron  rack  is  preferable  to  one  of  wood,  being  more  easily 
kept  clean,  and  furnishing  no  splinters  ;  which,  where  wood- 
en racks  are  used,  sometimes  injure  the  mouth.  The  man- 
ger may  be  so  contrived  as  to  slide  into  the  wall  like  a 
drawer  ;  and  then,  while  the  groom  is  wisping  him,  he  would 
have  nothing  to  lay  hold  of  with  his  mouth,  by  which  prac- 
tice horses  often  become  crib-biters.  The  height  both  of  the 
rack  and  manger  should  be  such  as  to  enable  the  horse  to 
feed  with  the  greatest  ease :  the  former  is  sometimes  made 
so  high  that  the  horse  is  obliged  to  exert  the  muscles  of  his 
neck  considerably  in  order  to  reach  it ;  and  this  has  been  so 
placed,  under  an  idea  of  its  having  a  tendency  to  make  him 
carry  his  head  more  gracefully  :  it  is  more  probable,  how- 


252  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

ever,  that  the  only  eiTect  of  it  is  to  make  the  horse  uncom- 
fortaLle  while  feeding.  It  has  indeed  been  lately  recommend- 
ed, as  the  best  plan,  to  place  the  racks  on  a  level  with  the 
manger,  so  that  the  horse  may  feed  as  he  does  in  a  state  of 
nature.  This  plan  is  a  good  one.  It  has  been  tried  both 
for  wagon  and  saddle  horses,  that  is,  both  single  and  double, 
and  found  to  answer  extremely  well.  It  \vas  observed,  how- 
ever, that  some  horses  would  throw  out  part  of  the  hay  with 
their  noses  when  it  was  of  a  bad  quality  ;  but  by  placing 
one  or  more  bars  across  on  the  upper  part,  from  the  front  to 
the  back,  this  was  effectually  prcented.  The  manger  should 
be  rather  wide,  and  not  less  than  eighteen  inches  deep. 
When  a  horse  is  fed  principally  with  chaff  or  cut  hay,  a 
deep  manger  is  particularly  necessary,  as  many  horses,  in 
endeavoring  to  pick  out  the  oats  from  the  chaff,  will  throw 
out  a  great  deal  of  the  food  with  their  noses  when  the  man- 
ger is  shallow.  In  larger  stables,  where  many  horses  are 
kept,  such  as  post  or  wagon  stables,  each  stall  is  to  contain 
two  horses,  which  will  require  a  space  of  twelve  feet.  A 
mpnger  is  placed  at  each  end,  and  the  hay  crib  in  the  centre. 
A  very  short  halter  is  sufficient  to  allow  the  horses  to  lie 
down,  and  then  there  is  no  danger  of  entangling  themselves 
with  it,  an  accident  that  often  occurs  when  long  halters  are 
used.  La  Fosse,  in  his  Manuel  d'Hippiatrique,  says  that  the 
fall  in  the  floor  of  the  stall  should  not  be  more  than  one 
inch  to  two  yards :  and  this,  I  think,  is  quite  sufficient. 
The  gutter  behind  the  stall  is  commonly  too  deep,  and  often 
so  placed  as  to  be  in  the  way  of  the  horses'  hind  feet. 
When  a  stable  is  properly  attended  to,  scarcely  any  gutter 
is  required;  and  when  theie  is  one,  it  should  be  very  shal- 
low and  wide. 

When  a  stable  is  ventilated  by  means  of  a  tube  or  chim- 
ney, it  should  be  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  ceiling,  the 
opening  in  \vhich  should  be  large,  in  proportion  to  the  num- 
ber of  horses  kept ;  it  cannot  well  be  too  large,  but  may  be 
contracted  upwards,  so  as  to  have  a  conical  shape,  or  it  may 
be  made  so  as  to  resemble  a  dome  or  cupola.  It  should  be 
carried  a  few  feet  above  the  top  of  the  roof,  and  have  lateral 
openings  by  means  of  slanting  boards,  but  closed  on  the  top ; 
by  which  contrivance  there  would  be  a  free  communication 
with  the  atmosphere,  and  the  rain  would  be  effectually  ex- 
cluded. 

There  have  been  different  opinions  held  with  respect  to 
the  removal  of  the  litter  during  the  day ;  but  when  we  con- 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  253 

slder  how  rapidly  and  abundantly  ammonia  or  the  volatile 
alkali  is  generated  in  it,  and  how  injurious  that  vapor  is  to 
the  eyes  and  lungs,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  propriety 
of  removing  it.  Dr.  Egan,  of  Dublin,  has  discovered,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Peall,  that  the  urine  of  the  horse  begins  to  gene- 
rate volatile  alkali  very  soon  after  it  is  voided  ;  and  it  is  well 
observed  by  the  same  author,  that  if  this  vapor  be  capable  of 
painfully  stimulating  a  sound  and  healthy  eye,  its  effects  upon 
one  that  is  inflamed,  and  consequently  extremely  irritable, 
must  be  both  highly  painful  and  prejudicial  to  the  organ. 
In  confirmation  of  this  opinion,  the  author  relates  the  follow- 
ing experiment :  A  horse  laboring  under  inflammation  of  the 
eye  was  removed  from  the  stable,  where  he  kept  both  eyes 
constantly  shut,  and  placed  in  a  cool,  airy  situation  ;  in  the 
space  of  half  an  hour  he  began  gradually  to  open  his  eyes, 
and  in  the  space  of  two  or  three  hours  he  kept  them  open 
boldly.  The  horse  was  again  placed  in  the  stable,  and  in  a 
few  minutes  he  began  gradually  to  close  the  eyes,  and  after 
an  hour  or  two  kept  them  constantly  shut.  Not  satisfied, 
however,  with  this  experiment,  though  it  seems  pretty  con- 
clusive, the  horse  was  again  removed  to  the  cool  situation, 
and  the  same  effect  followed  as  at  first.  If  the  vapors  pro- 
duced by  foul  litter  prove  so  injurious  to  the  eyes,  it  cannot 
surely  be  less  prejudicial  to  the  lungs;  and  it  is  highly  pro- 
bable that  if  coughs  are  not  produced  in  this  way,  they  are 
often  aggravated  and  rendered  incurable  by  those  irritating 
effluvia.  Another  evil  to  be  considered  is  the  propensity 
observable  in  many  horses  to  eat  their  litter.  This  is  often 
the  case  with  such  as  have  a  chronic  cough,  or  are  disposed 
to  become  brokenwinded,  or  have  worms  ;  and  in  all  these 
diseases  there  is  nothing,  perhaps,  more  likely  to  increase 
them  than  the  animal's  eating  foul  litter.  It  must  be  obvious 
that  horses  employed  in  severe  labor  should  be  allowed  to 
lie  down  whenever  they  are  inclined  to  do  so ;  but  even  then 
all  the  litter  may  be  turned  out  early  in  the  morning,  the 
floor  of  the  stall  swept  perfectly  clean,  and  a  bed  of  fresh 
straw  put  in.  If  the  foul  litter  be  spread  abroad  in  the  open 
air,  and  shaken  up  two  or  three  times  during  the  day,  the 
greater  part  would  be  again  fit  for  litter,  and,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a  little  fresh  straw,  would  serve  to  replace  that  upon 
which  the  horse  has  rested  during  the  day.  It  has  been 
said,  that  horses  which  stand  constantly  on  litter  are  apt  to 
feel  the  difference  of  the  road  and  become  tender-footed. 
Mr.  Clark  observes,  that  the  heat  arising  from  the  litter  occa- 
22 


254  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

sions  a  more  than  ordinary  derivation  of  blood  to  the  le^ 
and  feet ;  and  hence  arise  swelling  or  gourdiness  of  those 
parts,  greasy  heels,  and  stiffness  or  numbness.  If  the  horse 
lies  down  for  relief,  the  heat  of  the  litter  soon  forces  him  to 
get  up  again,  and  after  repeatedly  lying  down,  and  forced  to 
get  up  immediately  from  the  above  cause,  he  attempts  it  no 
farther  ;  he  stands  upright,  or  perhaps  a  little  straddling, 
often  shifting  the  weight  of  his  body  from  one  leg  to  the 
other.  This  erect  position,  in  which  he  is  obliged  to  stand, 
increases  the  swelling  of  his  legs,  &c.,  and  recourse  is  then 
had  to  bleeding,  purging,  diuretics,  &c. 

Lord  Pembroke,  in  his  Military  Equitation,  observes  that 
after  working,  and  at  night  of  course,  as  also  in  lameness  and 
sickness,  it  is  good  for  horses  to  stand  on  litter  ;  it  also  pro- 
duces staling,  &c.  At  other  times,  it  is  a  bad  custom;  the 
constant  use  of  it  heats  and  makes  the  feet  tender,  and  causes 
swelled  legs  ;  moreover,  it  renders  the  animal  delicate. 

Swelled  legs  may  be  often  reduced  to  their  natural  size 
merely  by  taking  away  the  litter,  which,  in  some  stables, 
where  ignorant  grooms  and  farriers  govern,  would  be  a  great 
saving  of  physic  and  bleeding,  besides  straw. 

Lord  Pembroke  has  noticed  by  repeated  experiments,  that 
legs  swell  or  unswell  by  leaving  litter  or  taking  it  away,  like 
mercury  in  a  weather-glass.  Mr.  Blaine  is  of  opinion,  that 
the  custom  of  standing  on  litter  ruins  more  horses  than  all 
the  mails  or  stage-coaches  put  together  ;  that  it  is  the  fruit- 
ful source  of  contracted  feet,  and  brings  on  that  ruinous  affec- 
tion with  more  certainty  than  the  hardest  work.  In  my 
own  stables  (he  says)  no  litter  is  ever  suffered  to  remain 
under  the  fore-feet  during  the  day.  The  horses  stand  on  bare 
bricks,  which,  in  summer,  are  watered  to  make  them  more 
cool ;  by  which  means  I  have  experienced  astonishing  benefit. 
Behind,  a  little  litter  is  strewed,  because  they  are  apt  to  kick 
and  break  the  bricks  with  their  hind  feet ;  and  because  the  lit- 
ter thus  placed  sucks  up  the  moisture  of  the  urine,  which 
would  be  detrimental  to  the  hinder  feet,  which  are  more  lia- 
ble to  thrushes  than  contraction. 

Colts.  '  "  Colts  are  usually  foaled  about  the  beginning  of 
summer,  and  it  is  the  custom  to  let  them  run  till  Michael- 
mas with  the  mare,  at  which  time  they  are  to  be  weaned. 
When  first  weaned,  they  must  be  kept  in  a  convenient  house, 
with  a  low  rack  and  manger  for  hay  and  oats ;  the  hay  must 
be  very  sweet  and  fine,  especially  at  first,  and  a  little  wheat 
bran  should  be  mixed  with  their  oats,  in  order  to  keep  their 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


255 


bodies  open,  and  make  them  eat  and  drink  freely.  When 
the  winter  is  spent,  they  should  be  turned  into  some  dry 
ground,  where  the  grass  is  sweet  and  short,  and  where  there 
is  good  water,  that  they  may  drink  at  pleasure.  The  win- 
terafter  this,  they  may  be  kept  in  the  stable,  without  any 
farther  care  than  that  which  is  taken  of  other  horses.  But 
after  the  first  year,  the  mare  foals  and  horse  foals  are  not  to 
be  kept  together.  There  is  no  difficulty  to  know  the  shape 
a  foal  is  like  to  be  of,  for  the  same  shape  he  carries  at  a 
month  he  will  carry  at  six  years  old,  if  he  be  not  abused  in 
after  keeping." 

'  We  often  hear  it  lamented,  that  our  breed  of  horses  is 
bad.  But  I  am  convinced  that,  as  our  colts  are  managed,  if 
we  had  any  other  breed,  we  should  soon  make  it  appear  to 
be  as  mean  as  our  own,  if  not  worse.  The  abusing  of  colts 
in  the  first  winter  is  the  principal  cause  of  their  proving  so 
bad  ;  for  our  farmers  seldom  allow  their  weaned  colts  any 
food  besides  hay,  and  that  is  not  always  of  the  best  kind. 
So  that  they  seldom  fail  of  being  stinted  in  their  growth,  in 
the  first  winter,  to  such  a  degree,  that  they  never  get  the 
better  of  it.  A  colt  that  is  foaled  late  should  not  be  weaned 
till  February  or  March,  and  should  have  oats  during  the 
v.'^ole  of  the  winter.  In  some  countries,  they  allow  a  young 
colt  fifteen  bushels.  We  need  not  grudge  to  feed  them  with 
meal,  oats,  and  bran,  besides  the  best  of  clover  hay  ;  for  they 
will  pay  for  it  in  their  growth.  After  the  first  winter,  they 
will  need  no  extraordinary  feeding  till  they  are  grown  up. 
Were  the  above  directions  observed,  we  should  soon  see  au 
improvement  of  our  breed  of  horses.  They  would  be  capa- 
ble of  doing  much  greater  service,  and  be  likely  to  hold  out 
to  a  greater  age.' — Deane. 

For  farther  remarks  on  the  management  of  colts,  and 
training  or  breaking  them  for  service,  see  page  67  of  this 
work. 


MANGEL-WURTZEL.  '  Field  Culture  of  the  Mangel- 
wurtzel  Beet  and  the  Sugar  Beet.  Soil  and  Preparation. 
The  soil  for  these  roots  should  be  a  loam,  inclining  to  clay, 
in  good  tilth,  well  manured,  and  made  fine  to  a  good  depth. 
John  Hare  Powel,  Esq.,  corresponding  secretary  to  the  Penn- 
sylvania Agricultural  society,  in  giving  an  account  of  his 
mode  of  cultivating  this  crop,  says,  "  My  soil  was  not  natu- 
rally strong ;  it  has  been  gradually  so  much  deepened  as  to 


256  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

enable  Wood's  plough,  No.  2,  drawn  by  four  oxen,  to  plough 
fourteen  inches  deep.  Fresh  barn-yard  manure  was  equally 
spread  upon  the  surface,  and  ploughed  under  in  the  early 
part  of  April,  in  quantities  not  larger  than  are  generally  used 
for  potato  crops  in  this  country.  Early  in  May,  the  land 
was  twice  stirred  with  Beatson's  scarifier,  harrowed,  rolled  ; 
after  stirred,  harrowed  and  rolled  again  in  the  opposite 
direction."  The  soil  on  which  Messrs.  Tristram  Little  and 
Henry  Little,  of  Newbury,  Massachusetts,  raised  their  premi- 
um crop  in  1824,  is  a  clay  loam.  In  1823,  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  same  was  sowed  with  onions,  and  manured 
with  about  eight  cords  of  compost  manure  to  the  acre.  The 
other  quarter  was  sowed  with  wheat  without  manure.  In 
the  fall  of  1823,  there  were  about  ten  cords  of  compost  ma- 
nure-drawn on  the  lot,  and  put  in  a  heap.  Most  of  the  said 
compost  was  drawn  from  the  salt  marshes,  when  ditching 
the  same  ;  the  other  part  was  from  the  barn-yard.  In  the 
month  of  April,  1824,  the  heap  was  thrown  over,  and  well 
mixed. 

'  Planting.  Colonel  Powel  says,  "  The  holes  for  the  seeds 
were  made  by  a  wheel,  containino-  pegs  in  its  circumference, 
which  penetrated  the  ground  about  an  inch,  leaving  intervals 
of  four  inches;  the  rows  were  made  two  feet  asunder;  two 
capsules  were  dropped  into  each  hole ;  the  wheel  of  a  com- 
mon barrovf  was  passed  over  them,  thus  compressing  the 
earth,  and  leaving  a  slight  rut  for  the  retention  of  moisture." 

'  Messrs.  Tristram  and  Henry  Little  observe,  that,  "  Be- 
tween the  8th  and  11th  of  May,  the  land  was  ploughed  and 
sowed  in  the  following  manner : — After  one  deep  ploughing, 
the  ground  was  furrowed  two  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  the 
manure  put  into  the  furrovv'^s,  and  covered  with  a  double 
mould-board  plough  ;  a  roller  was  then  passed  on  the  top  of 
the  ridge,  and  the  seed  dibbled  in  with  the  finger  over  the 
manure,  about  six  or  eight  inches  apart."  The  quantity  of 
seed,  according  to  English  writers,  is  four  pounds  to  an  acre. 
Mr.  David  Little,  in  obtaining  a  premium  crop,  sowed  four 
pounds,  but  observed  that  he  thought  half  that  quantity 
would  have  been  sufficient. 

'  After -culture.  In  raising  colonel  Powel's  crop,  "  A  small 
cultivator,  which  I  had  contrived  for  the  purpose,  was  drawn 
between  the  rows  soon  after  the  weeds  appeared ;  a  three 
inch  triangular  hoe  removed  the  alternate  plants,  leaving  the 
others  at  distances  varying  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  asun- 
der.     The  cultivator  was  twice  used  before  the  20th  of  July. 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  257 

The  hea^y  rains  of  August  made  another  hoeing  necessary, 
and  surcharged  the  ground  so  much  with  moisture,  that  all 
roots  increased  much  less  in  that  month  than  during  the 
same  time  in  the  two  last  years."  The  Messrs.  Little,  "in 
the  course  of  the  season,  thinned  their  plants,  and  left  them 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  They  Avere 
once  hoed,  and  ploughed  three  times  between  the  rows." 
Mr.  Powel,  in  raising  a  previous  crop,  had  placed  the  rows 
thirty  inches  apart,  and  left  the  plants  six  inches  apart  in 
the  rows.  He  says,  "  I  this  year  desired  smaller  roots,  which 
might  grow  so  closely  as  by  their  leaves  to  protect  the  soil 
as  much  as  possible  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  My  cultiva- 
tor, by  its  peculiar  form,  enabled  me  to  cut  off  the  weeds 
when  the  plants  were  so  young,  that,  if  I  had  applied  the 
plough,  their  crowns  must  have  been  covered  in  many  in- 
stances by  earth  occasionally  falling  from  its  land  side.  The 
failure  which  attends  the  cultivation  of  most  root  crops  in 
drills,  proceeds  from  the  neglect  of  weeds  in  their  early  sta- 
ges. Four  or  five  days  of  delay  frequently  make  the  diffe- 
rence of  fifteen  days  in  the  labor  of  making  clean  an  acre  of 
ground.  The  same  weeds  which  a  boy  with  a  sharp  shingle 
could  remove  at  the  commencement  of  one  week,  may  before 
the  end  of  the  next  require  the  application  of  an  implement 
drawn  by  a  horse. 

' "  I  ascribe  my  success,  in  great  measure,  to  the  use  of 
Wood's  extraor dinar ij  plough,  which  enters  the  soil  more 
deeply,  and  pulverizes  it  more  perfectly,  than  any  other  I 
have  ever  seen,  with  equal  force,  in  any  country ;  to  the  use 
of  cultivators,  which  complete  the  production  of  fine  tilth; 
to  the  destruction  of  the  weeds  on  their  first  appearance — 
leaving  the  smallest  space  upon  which  a  horse  can  walk  be- 
tween the  rows  ;  and,  above  all,  to  planting  the  seeds  of  a 
proper  kind  upon  a  surface  which  is  kept  perfectly  flat. '^ 

'  General  Remarks.  Agriculturists  have  not  agreed  whe- 
ther it  is  most  expedient  to  plant  the  seeds  of  this  root  on 
ridges  or  on  a  level.  Colonel  Powel  condemns  planting  on 
ridges  in  this  country,  as  a  practice  not  adapted  to  our  soil 
and  climate,  in  which  vegetables  are  very  liable  to  suffer  by 
drought.  He  says,  "  Among  the  various  practices  into 
which  we  have  been  seduced  by  the  plausible  theories  of  the 
advocates  of  European  husbandry,  there  is  none  which  ap- 
pears to  me  more  absurd  than  that  which  has  led  us  to  drill 
or  dibble  our  crops  on  ridges.  The  English  farmer  wisely 
contends  with  the  evils  produced  by  too  much  rain;  the 
22=^ 


258  THE    COMPLETE  FARMER 

American  husbandman  should  as  anxiously  guard  against 
his  most  formidable  enemy,  drought.  I  am  inclined  to  think 
that  there  is  no  crop  cultivated  in  this  state  (Pennsylvania) 
which  ought  not  to  be  put  on  a  flat  surface."  The  climate 
of  New  England,  especially  its  northern  part,  is  not  so  warm 
and  dry  as  that  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  that  part  of  the 
United  States,  perhaps,  the  nature  of  the  soil  should  decide 
the  question;  if  dry,  level  planting,  or  if  moist,  ridge  planting 
should  be  adopted. 

We  have  heard  complaints  from  American  farmers,  that 
the  seed  of  this  root  is  slow  and  uncertain  in  coming  up. 
Perhaps  the  seed  or  soil,  or  both,  may  sometimes  be  too  dry 
at  the  time  of  sowing.  A  writer  in  the  English  Farmer's 
Journal  says,  "  I  have  of  late  years  steeped  my  seed  for  at 
least. forty-eight  hours.  I  made  an  experiment  with  twenty 
sound  seeds  not  steeped,  twenty  steeped  twenty-four  hours, 
and  the  same  number  steeped  forty-eight  hours  ;  every  seed 
of  the  latter  produced  plants,  which  came  up  two  or  three 
days  sooner  than  either  of  the  others,  and  some  of  those  not 
steeped  did  not  come  up  at  all."  Mr.  Cobbett,  in  treating 
of  the  culture  of  the  common  garden  beets,  {American  Gar- 
dener^ par.  198,)  directs  to  soak  the  seed  four  days  and  nights 
in  rain-water  before  it  is  sowed;  and  observes,  that  the 
mangel-wurtzel  should  be  cultivated  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  other  kinds  of  beets.  American  writers,  so  far  as  we 
have  observed,  give  no  directions  for  soaking  the  seeds  of 
this  vegetable  before  planting  ;  and  it  is  possible  that  the 
omission  of  this  part  of  the  process  may  cause  the  slowness 
and  uncertainty  of  vegetation  complained  of.  The  capsule, 
or  husk,  which  contains  the  seeds,  is  dry,  and  it  requires  a 
long  time  for  the  moisture  which  it  may  derive  from  the 
earth  to  penetrate  this  integument,  so  as  to  cause  tlie  seed 
to  sprout.  But  if  the  soil  be  very  moist  at  the  time  of  sow- 
ing, soaking  the  seed  had  better  be  omitted. 

'  Much  has  been  written  and  said  on  the  subject  of  strip- 
ping these  plants  of  their  leaves  for  feeding  cows  and  other 
economical  purposes.  An  English  writer  observes,  that  six 
or  seven  crops  of  leaves  and  stocks  may  be  taken  off  during 
the  growth  of  the  root.  Women  and  children  can  take  off  the 
leaves,  which  is  done  as  follows :  they  should  place  their 
hands  on  each  side  of  the  root,  at  the  foot  stalks  of  the  leaves, 
leaving  about  six  of  the  smallest  central  leaves  between  the 
fore-finger  and  thumb  of  each  hand ;  (the  small  leaves  are  to 
be  left  on  the  root  to  grow,  to  make   a  fresh  top ;)  then, 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  259 

spreading  the  hand  flat  with  their  face  downwards,  push 
them  both  at  the  same  time  towards  the  ground,  and  thus, 
by  one  motion,  will  the  whole  of  the  top  of  each  root,  ex- 
cept the  small  leaves  to  be  left  to  form  a  fresh  head,  be  re- 
moved without  unsettling  the  root  or  its  fibres,  which  would 
check  its  growth.  Some  affirm,  that  stripping  the  plant  of 
its  leaves  is  no  injury  to  the  root,  and  others  are  of  opinion 
that  the  root  is  injured  by  this  means.  We  have  doubts, 
whether,  in  field  cultivation,  it  will  often  be  deemed  expe- 
dient to  expend  time  and  labor  in  this  manner.  The  thin- 
nings, or  superfluous  plants,  however,  should  be  preserved, 
as  they  make  excellent  food  for  milch  cows  or  store  swine. 

'  Some  cultivators  affirm,  that  it  is  never  worth  the  trouble 
to  transplant  these  roots  to  fill  vacancies.  "  I  have  sten," 
says  an  English  writer,  much  labor  and  expense  employed  in 
transplanting  into  vacant  spots,  when  the  seed  has  not  been 
dibbled  thick  enough,  but  have  never  seen  the  transplanted 
roots  worth  half  the  trouble  ;  the  tap-root  being  broken  in  the 
drawing,  nothing  but  the  top  and  useless  rough  roots  and 
fangs  are  produced.  It  has  been  remarked  by  other  writers, 
that  the  most  common  cause  of  failure  in  transplanting  this 
root  is  the  taking  them  up  when  too  small,  before  the  plants 
have  obtained  strength  and  size  sufficient  to  bear  the  opera- 
tion of  transplanting. 

'  Use.  The  following  remarks  are  from  a  paper  communi- 
cated to  the  trustees  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  so- 
ciety, by  J.  Lowell,  Esq.,  president  of  said  society.  They 
are  derived,  principally,  from  a  French  publication,  by  the 
Abbe  Rosier. 

'  "  This  root  is  very  little  aflected  by  changes  of  weather. 
It  is  attacked  by  no  insect ;  drought  affects  but  little  its 
vegetation.  It  prepares  the  land  extremely  well  for  other 
crops.  It  may  be  sown  and  treated  precisely  like  the  com- 
mon beet,  except  that  it  ought  to  stand  eighteen  inches 
asunder. 

'  "  In  good  land,  they  often  weigh  nine  or  ten  pounds,  and 
are  stripped  eight  or  nine  times.  In  a  light,  sandy,  but  well 
manured  soil,  they  sometimes  weigh  fourteen  and  even  six- 
teen pounds  each  ! 

' "  The  first  crop  of  leaves  in  France  is  taken  off'  in  the 
latter  end  of  June,  or  the  beginning  of  July.  In  this  coun- 
try, probably,  the  latter  period  would  be  preferable.  The 
lower  leaves,  those  which  incline  towards  the  ground,  are 
those  which  are  taken  away,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  pre- 


260  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

serve  the  top-leaves,  or  the  crown  of  the  plants.  The  leaves 
may  be  taken  off  every  fifteen  days  after  the  first  gathering. 
Oxen,  cows,  and  sheep,  devour  them  greedily,  and  fatten 
readily  upon  :hem.  All  domestic  poultry  eat  them  readily, 
when  chopped  fine  and  mixed  with  grain.  Horses  will  feed 
upon  them  very  well,  mixed  with  chopped  straw.  Hogs  also 
fatten  upon  them. 

'  "  Cows  fed  upon  this  root  solely  give  a  greater  quantity 
of  milk  and  cream,  and  of  better  quality  for  the  first  fifteen 
days,  after  which  they  grow  too  fat,  and  the  milk  lessens. 
The  food  of  cows  must  therefore  be  varied.  Oxen  and  sheep 
fatten  very  well  upon  them.  Cows  should  have  grass  in 
proportion  of  one-third  to  the  beet  leaves,  or  every  third  day 
they  should  be  turned  to  grass.  In  this  mode  their  milk 
will  be  excellent.  The  trouble  of  gathering  the  leaves  is  less 
than  that  of  gathering  any  other  green  fodder.  It  may  be 
done  by  children,  while  men  are  required  to  cut  other  green 
food  for  cattle.  It  is  the  surest  crop,  since  the  plant  will 
stand  the  longest  droughts.  The  roots  are  gathered  and 
treated  like  those  of  the  common  beet.  The  skin  is  very 
tender,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  handle  them  so  as  they 
may  not  be  wounded,  as  they  will,  in  that  case,  not  keep  so 
well.  In  order  to  preserve  the  seed  in  purity,  care  must  be 
taken  to  change  the  ground  in  which  the  seed  beets  are 
planted.  The  seed  can  be  preserved,  after  it  is  gathered, 
three  or  four  years,  without  injury.  In  giving  these  roots 
to  cattle  for  food,  they  are  first  washed,  and  then  cut  up  into 
pieces  about  the  size  of  a  nut.  It  is  always  best  to  accom- 
pany them,  when  given  to  horned  cattle,  with  clover,  or  other 
hay  or  straw,  and  if  the  hay  or  straw  has  been  previously 
cut  fine,  it  will  be  preferable.  If  horses  are  fed  with  this 
root,  with  a  proportion  of  hay  or  cut  straw,  (half  of  each,) 
they  will  be  fat,  vigorous,  and  healthy.  If  they  are  worked 
severely,  a  little  oats  or  corn  may  be  added.  It  is  thus  they 
are  treated  in  Germany,  where  this  root  stands  in  the  stead 
of  meadows  or  grass  lands,  and  whose  excellent  horses  are 
well  known. 

'  "  Hogs,  fed  upon  them  raw,  after  they  have  been  cut  up 
fine  and  mixed  with  milk  or  other  drink,  fatten  as  well  upon 
them  as  upon  boiled  potatoes,  by  which  the  fuel  and  trouble 
of  boiling  is  saved. 

'  "  As  to  the  quantity  given  to  animals,  much  will  depend 
on  the  proportion  of  other  fodder  which  you  allow  them. 
Cows  fed  twice  a  day  in  winter  upon  eighteen  pounds  of 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  261 

these  roots  at  each  time,  together  with  four  pounds  of  hay  or 
chopped  straw,  will  give  as  much  and  as  good  milk  as  in 
summer,  and  they  will  be  kept  in  the  best  possible  stute. 

'  "  Oxen  fed  with  forty  weight  of  these  roots  per  day,  with 
ten  pounds  of  hay,  for  one  month,  and  after  that  with  fifty 
weight  per  day  of  the  roots  alone,  will  be  fat  enough  for  sale 
in  two  months  more. 

'  "  Any  person  disposed  may,  from  the  facts  above  stated, 
calculate  how  many  cattle  will  be  supported  by  a  single  acre 
of  land  on  which  this  plant  is  cultivated. 

*"  Man  can  eat  this  vegetable  throughout  the  year;  it  is 
agreeable  and  healthy.  No  insect  attacks  it,  and  it  suffers 
but  little  from  the  variety  of  the  seasons.  The  leaves  of 
this  plant  form  alone  an  excellent  food  for  every  species  of 
domestic  quadruped,  during  four  months  in  the  year.  Tur- 
nips and  other  vegetables  are,  besides,  liable  to  be  destroyed 
by  insects,  whereas  this  beet  is  not.  The  roots  can  be  pre- 
served eight  months  in  a  sound  state,  while  turnips  are  of 
little  value  after  March.  In  some  soils  turnips  will  not  grow, 
particularly  in  those  which  are  very  stiff  or  strong.  The 
root  of  scarcity  grows  everywhere.  The  milk  of  cows  fed 
on  turnips  has  a  bad  taste ;  that  of  those  fed  on  this  plant 
is  excellent,  as  is  also  the  butter  made  from  it.  This  forage 
on  green  fodder  comes  also  at  the  hot  seasons,  when  almost 
all  other  green  food  is  scarce,  and  sometimes  not  to  be  pro- 
cured. Cattle  never  get  tired  of  it.  In  many  parts  of  Ger- 
many, where  it  is  raised  with  success,  they  prefer  it  to  every 
thing  else  to  fatten  those  large  herds  of  cattle  which  they 
annually  export  to  France.  In  feeding  cattle  with  beets,  the 
same  dry  food  must  be  given  which  is  usually  given  with 
turnips," 

'  Colonel  Powel  observes,  "  My  neat  cattle  prefer  mangel- 
wurtzel  to  any  roots  which  I  have  offered  to  them.  I  have 
found  its  effects  in  producing  large  secretions  oi  good  milk 
very  great.  I  selected,  in  November,  two  heifers  of  the 
same  breed,  and  very  nearly  of  the  same  age,  and  in  similar 
condition  ;  they  were  fed  in  adjoining  stalls,  and  have  been 
fed  regularly  three  times  a  day,  by  the  same  man.  One  of 
them  has  had  three  pecks  of  mangel-wurtzel  and  four  quarts 
of  corn-meal  daily  ;  the  other,  four  and  a  half  pecks  of 
mangel-wurtzel.  The  last,  which  has  had  mangel-wurtzel 
alone,  is  in  the  condition  of  good  beef;  the  other  is  not  more 
than  what  graziers  call  half  fat. 

* "  The  application  of  mangel-wurtzel  as  food  for  sheep  is 


262 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


not  the  least  important  of  its  uses.  Ewes  yean  usually  at 
the  season  when  grass  cannot  be  supplied.  The  health  of 
themselves  and  the  thrift  of  their  lambs  essentially  depend 
upon  succulent  food  being  had.  I  am  inclined  to  think,  that 
no  small  portion  of  the  success  which  English  breeders  have 
met,  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  large  stores  of  roots  which  they 
always  have  at  command.  It  cannot  be  denied,  that  Indian 
meal  will  of  itself,  in  most  cases,  produce  extraordinary  fat- 
ness, as  well  as  great  size  ;  but  I  have  been  led  to  believe, 
that  diseases  are  early  engendered  by  this  species  of  forcing, 
which  is  always  expensive,  and  too  often  eventually  destroys 
the  animal  which  has  been  thus  reared." 

'  Messrs.  T.  and  H.  Little  observe,  as  to  the  value  of  the 
roots  for  feeding  stock,  "  there  is  a  variety  of  opinions  ;  but, 
from  a  number  of  years'  experience,  we  think  them  a  valua- 
ble addition,  and  highly  worth  cultivating.  Comparing  them 
with  English  hay,  and  we  know  of  no  better  standard,  in 
our  opinion,  three  tons  of  mangel-wurtzel,  or  potatoes,  (of 
the  two,  we  value  the  mangel-wurtzel  the  highest,)  are 
equal  to  one  ton  of  hay,  for  feeding  stock  generally ;  but 
for  milch  cows,  we  think  two  tons  of  equal  value.  For  feed- 
ing store  swine,  mangel-wurtzel  is  the  only  root  that  we 
know  of  which  we  can  cultivate  and  feed  to  profit.  Six 
bushels  of  raw  mangel-wurtzel  we  think  equal  to  one  bushel 
of  Indian  corn." 

'  Quantity  to  an  Acre.  The  premium  crop  of  the  Messrs. 
Little  was  thirty-three  tons  ten  hundred  weight  and  four- 
teen pounds  on  an  acre.  Colonel  Powel  inclosed  certificates 
to  the  president  of  the  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  society, 
showing  that  sixteen  hundred  and  thirty-four  bushels  of  man- 
gel-wurtzel, weighing  seventy-eight  thousand  four  hundred 
and  forty-eight  pounds,  were  produced  upon  one  acre  and 
fourteen  perches  ;  and  a  part  of  the  same  field,  containing 
thirteen  contiguous  rows,  produced  at  the  rate  of  two  thou- 
sand and  sixty-five  bushels  per  acre,  weighing  forty-four 
tons  five  hundred  and  twenty-seven  pounds.  In  Great  Bri- 
tain, it  is  said  that  upwards  of  sixty  tons  have  been  raised 
on  an  acre. 

'  Gathering  and  Preserving.  In  gathering  the  roots,  care 
should  be  taken  to  cut  oflT  the  leaves  about  half  an  inch 
above  the  crown,  as  they  will  not  keep  so  well  if  cut  more 
closely.  Messrs.  Tristram  and  Henry  Little  say,  "  As  to 
the  best  mode  of  preserving  them,  we  have  tried  divers 
ways, — by  pitting  them,  by  putting  them  into  a  barn   and 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  263 

covering  them  with  hay,  and  by  putting  them  into  the 
cellar;  the  last  mode  we  think  the  best."  Colonel  Powel 
observes,  that  one  of  his  crops  was  "  piled  in  a  cellar,  in 
rows,  as  wood,  and  covered  with  sand."  A  writer  in  the 
English  Farmer's  Journal  observes,  that  he  has  practised, 
with  success,  the  following  mode  of  preserving  this  root : 
"  I  pack  it  in  long  heaps,  about  seven  feet  wide  at  the  bot- 
tom. I  begin  by  forming  the  outsides  with  tne  roots,  not 
stripped  of  their  tops  ;  tops  outwards  ;  the  internal  parts  to 
be  filled  with  roots  without  leaves  ;  continue  one  layer  over 
another,  until  the  heap  is  about  six  feet  high,  and  about  two 
feet  broad  at  top,  which  may  be  covered  with  straw  and 
earth ;  the  ends  of  the  heap  should  be  covered  in  the  same 
way :  the  leaves  form  an  efficient  covering  against  rain  and 
frost." 

'Mr.  M'Mahon's  mode  of  preserving  beets  and  other 
roots  is  as  follows :  "  Previous  to  the  commencement  of 
severe  frost,  you  should  take  up,  with  as  little  injury  as  pos- 
sible, the  roots  of  your  turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  beets,  sal- 
sify, scorzonera,  Hamburg  or  large-rooted  parsley,  skirrets, 
Jerusalem  artichokes,  turnip-rooted  celery,  and  a  sufficiency 
of  horseradish,  for  the  winter  consumption ;  cut  oft^  their 
tops,  and  expose  the  roots  for  a  few  hours,  till  sufficiently 
dry.  On  the  surface  of  a  very  dry  spot  of  ground,  in  a  well 
sheltered  situation,  lay  a  stratum  of  sand  two  inches  thick, 
and  on  this  a  layer  of  roots  of  either  sort,  covering  them 
with  another  layer  of  sand,  (the  drier  the  better,)  and  so 
continue  the  layers  of  sand  and  roots  till  all  are  laid  in,  giv- 
ing the  whole,  on  every  side,  a  roof-like  slope  ;  then  cover 
this  heap  or  ridge  all  over  with  about  two  inches  of  sand, 
over  which  lay  a  good  coat  of  drawn  straw,  up  and  down, 
as  if  thatching  a  house,  in  order  to  carry  off  wet  and  pre- 
vent its  entering  the  roots  ;  then  dig  a  wide  trench  round 
the  heap,  and  cover  the  straw  with  the  earth  so  dug  u-^\  to  a 
depth  sufficient  to  preserve  the  roots  effectually  from  frost. 
An  opening  may  be  made  on  the  south  side  of  this  heap, 
and  completely  covered  with  bundles  of  straw,  so  as  to  have 
access  to  the  roots  at  all  times,  when  wanted  either  for  sale 
or  use. 

'  "  Some  people  lay  straw  or  hay  between  the  layers  of 
roots,  and  immediately  on  the  top  of  them  ;  this  I  do  not 
approve  of,  as  the  straw  or  hay  will  become  damp  and 
mouldy,  and  very  often  occasion  the  roots  to  rot,  while  the 
sand  would  preserve  them  sweet  and  sound. 


264  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

*  "All  these  roots  may  be, preserved  in  like  manner  in  a 
cellar  ;  but  in  such  a  place  they  are  subject  to  vegetate  and 
become  stringy  earlier  in  spring.  The  only  advantage  of 
this  method  is,  that  in  the  cellar  they  may  be  had  when 
wanted  more  conveniently  during  winter  than  out  of  the 
field  or  garden  heaps. 

'■  "  Note.  All  the  above  roots  will  preserve  better  in  sand 
than  in  common  earth  ;  but  when  the  former  cannot  be 
had,  the  sandiest  earth  you  can  procure  must  be  dispensed 
with.'" 


RUT  A  BAG  A.  The  following  is  an  account  of  the 
method  cf  cultivating  ruta  baga,  adopted  by  Rev.  Henry 
Colman,  in  obtaining  a  crop  for  which  he  received  a  pre- 
mium of  twenty  dollars  from  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
society,  in  the  year  1830.  From  the  New^  England  Farmer, 
vol.  ix.  p.  284. 

Gentlemen — Accompanying  this  you  have  the  certificates 
of  a  crop  of  ruta  baga  raised  this  year  on  my  farm  in  Lynn. 
From  these  it  will  appear  that  on  an  acre,  measured  by  a 
sworn  surveyor,  on  one  side  of  the  field,  there  were  gathered 
seven  hundred  and  forty-one  baskets  full ;  and  that  forty 
baskets  of  the  above-named  weighed  at  the  town  scales  two 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  net  weight.  This, 
allowing  fifty-six  pounds  to  a  bushel,  the  standard  weight 
assumed  by  the  society,  would  give  a  crop  of  nine  hundred 
and  three  bushels  to  the  acre. 

The  turnips  were  planted  on  the  29th  of  June  and  2d  of 
July;  about  one  pound  and  a  half  of  seed  was  used  for  the 
acre  ;  and  they  w^ere  gathered  and  stored  in  cellars  and  in 
the  barn,  in  the  last  part  of  November. 

The  ground  on  which  they  grew  is  a  good  soil,  neither 
wet  nor  dry,  and  bore  the  last  year  an  abundant  crop  of 
onions,  and  corn  the  year  preceding  the  last.  It  was  well 
manured  at  both  times,  and  in  fine  tilth.  It  was  manured 
with  at  least  six  cords  to  the  acre  of  barn  manure  the  last 
spring,  and  sowed  again  to  onions  ;  but  thj  seed  entirely 
faiMng,  it  was  ploughed,  harrowed,  furrows  struck  out,  and 
about  eight  cords  of  barn  manure  spread  in  the  furrows; 
ploughed  again  so  as  by  a  back  furrow  to  form  a  ridge  over 
the  manure,  and  the  seed  sown  with  a  small  drill-harrow  oii 
the  ridges,  making  the  rows   about  twenty  inches  asunder. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  265 

As  soon  as  the  plants  were  of  sufficient  size,  a  drill-harrow, 
with  small  shares  fixed  to  it,  to  cut  off  all  the  weeds,  was 
passed  through  the  rows;  and  the  plants  thinned  with  a 
small  weeding  hoe  to  the  distance  of  about  eight  inches 
apart,  and  the  vacant  places  filled  up  by  transplanting  from 
the  supernumerary  plants.  They  were  once  more  harrowed 
and  cleaned,  which  was  a  very  small  labor;  and  owing  to 
the  very  unpropitious  weather,  were  not  harvested  until  very 
late.  Some  of  them  were  very  large ;  one  weighed  fifteen 
pounds,  and  many  were  nearly  as  large.  The  exact  expense 
of  cultivating  the  acre  cannot  be  estimated,  as  it  was  inter- 
mixed with  other  farm  work ;  but  the  whole,  from  the  sow- 
ing to  the  gathering,  was  not  two-thirds  of  the  labor  usually 
bestowed  on  planting,  cultivating,  and  gathering  an  acre  of 
potatoes. 

My  Swedish  turnips  the  last  year,  of  which  I  raised  con- 
siderable quantities,  were  fed  off  to  my  oxen,  dry  cows, 
young  stock,  and  fatting  sheep.  To  the  cattle  they  were  of 
very  great  advantage  ;  and  for  feeding  sheep,  they  proved 
the  last  year,  by  an  accurate  account,  worth  from  ten  to 
twelve  and  half  cents  per  bushel.  The  man  who  has  the 
care  of  my  stock  considers  them  as  among  the  most  profita- 
ble feed  which  can  be  given  either  to  fatting  or  to  store 
cattle.  Three  years'  experiment  has  increased  their  value 
very  much  for  these  purposes  in  ray  own  estimation. 
I  am,  gentlemen,  very  respectfully  yours, 

Henry  Colman. 

A  correspondent  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  xi.  p. 
277,  writes  thus : 

'  A  wish  to  have  others  profit  by  my  experience  has  in- 
duced me  to  send  you,  Mr.  Editor,  half  a  sheet  of  remarks 
on  the  culture  of  the  ruta  baga  as  a  food  for  domestic  ani- 
mals. I  have  cultivated  from  half  an  acre  to  three  acres  of 
this  root  every  year  for  thirteen  years  in  succession,  and  feel 
competent  to  give  rules  for  its  culture,  and  confidence  in  re- 
commending it  as  a  valuable  and  profitable  crop. 

'  The  soil  must  be  rich  and  dry ;  and  the  more  it  inclines 
to  a  sand  loam  the  better.  Clay  is  the  worst,  and  wet  soils 
will  not  answer  at  all. 

'  Preparations.  My  general  practice  has  been,  to  manure 
well  a  piece  of  pasture,  or  clover  ley,  from  which  the  hay 
has  first  been  cut,  plough  it  handsomely  over,  and  harrow  it 
well. 

'  Sowing,  ^c.     I  sow  in  rows,  at  two   and  a  half  or  three 
23 


266  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

feet,  with  a  drill-harrow.  The  sooner  the  preceding  opera- 
tions succeed  each  other  the  better.  I  have  sown  broad- 
cast, but  the  expense  of  thinning  and  culture  is  increased. 
A  man  will  drill  in  three  or  four  acres  a  day.  We  allow  a 
pound  of  seed  to  the  acre,  though  half  this,  properly  dis- 
tributed, is  enough.  Sow  from  the  26th  of  June  to  the  10th 
of  July. 

'  Culture.  I  use  a  cultivator,  that  may  be  graduated  to 
the  space  between  the  rows,  drawn  by  a  horse,  as  soon  as 
the  plants  can  be  well  distinguished.  This  is  repeated  in  a 
few  days,  back  and  forward,  and  the  implement  carried  so 
close  to  the  drills,  as  to  leave  only  strips  of  from  four  to  ten 
inches,  which  are  then  thoroughly  cleaned  with  a  skim  hoe, 
and  the  plants  thinned  to  eight  and  ten  inches'  distance. 
The  cultivator  soon  follows  for  a  third  time,  and  if  necessary 
the  skim  hoe,  when  the  crop  is  generally  left  till  harvest. 
The  great  aim  is  to  extirpate  the  weeds,  and  to  do  this  while 
they  are  small. 

'  Harvesting  is  postponed  as  long  as  the  season  will  per- 
mit. The  roots  are  then  pulled  up  and  laid  on  the  ground, 
the  tops  of  the  two  rows  towards  each  other.  The  pullers 
are  followed  by  a  man  or  boy  with  a  bill-hook,  who  with  a 
light  blow  cuts  the  tops  as  fast  as  three  or  four  can  pull. 
Three  men  will  in  this  way  harvest,  of  a  good  crop,  three 
hundred  bushels  in  a  day.  The  tops  are  gathered  into  heaps 
and  taken  to  the  yard  in  carts  daily,  for  the  stock,  until 
they  are  consumed.  An  acre  will  give  from  five  to  ten  cart- 
loads of  tops.  The  roots  are  piled  in  the  field  if  dry  ;  the 
pits,  two  or  two  and  a  half  feet  broad,  covered  with  straw 
and  earth,  and  as  cold  weather  approaches,  with  manure,  to 
prevent  frost.  N.  B.  With  a  crow-bar  make  one  or  more 
holes  on  the  crown  of  the  pit,  which  must  be  left  open,  to  let 
off  the  rarefied  air  and  prevent  the  roots  from  heating. 

'  Use.  The  tops  serve  for  autumn.  As  soon  as  the  mild 
weather  of  spring  will  justify,  I  break  through  the  frost,  and 
take  the  contents  of  a  pit  to  my  barn,  and  cover  the  roots 
with  straw  or  hay.  From  thence  they  are  fed  to  my  stock, 
being  first  chopped  up  with  a  snik^  (Dutch  meat-chopper,) 
or  spade.  They  are  excellent  for  sheep,  especially  for  ewes 
that  have  young ;  and  hogs  and  horses  eat  them  freely. 
Steamed,  they  are  used  in  the  north  of  England  for  horses 
as  a  substitute  for  grain.  I  have  fattened  sheep  and  bul- 
locks upon  them  with  profit.  They  constitute,  particularly 
firom  February  to  June,  an  excellent  culinary  vegetable  for 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  267 

the  table.  A  bullock  will  thrive  fast  upon  two  bushels  a 
day,  and  will  consume  hardly  any  hay,  and  requires  no 
drink. 

'  Product  and  Cost.  My  average  crop  has  been  six  hun- 
dred bushels  per  acre,  though  others  have  raised  much  heavi- 
er products.  The  cost  in  manure  and  labor,  when  they  are 
secured  for  winter,  has  been  from  two  to  three  cents  per 
bushel. 

'  N.  B.  Cattle  or  sheep  fattened  upon  this  root  should 
be  kept  from  eating  them  for  eight  or  ten  days  before  they 
are  slaughtered,  otherwise  the  meat  will  have  an  unpleasant 
savor.  J.  B.' 


ENGLISH  TURNIPS.  Every  farmer  will  find  it  profit- 
able to  raise  a  quantity  of  these  roots.  The  mangel-wurtzel 
and  the  ruta  baga,  useful  as  they  undoubtedly  are,  will  not 
completely  supersede,  nor  altogether  supply  the  place  of  the 
old-fashioned  English  turnip.  In  the  Memoirs  of  the  Board 
of  Agriculture  of  the  State  of  New  York,  vol.  i.  page  26,  we 
find  the  following  remarks  on  the  best  mode  of  cultivating 
this  valuable  root. 

'  There  is  no  difficulty  in  raising  turnips  on  new  land ;  but 
it  is  very  desirable  to  know  the  best  mode  of  raising  them, 
at  least  a  small  patch  every  year,  on  old  farms.  Mr.  Henry 
De  Bois,  of  this  county,  [Renssellaer]  and  major  E.  Cady,  of 
Columbia  county,  say  that  they  have  succeeded  in  obtaining 
good  crops  several  years  in  succession  by  the  following  pro- 
cess. Turn  over  a  turf  of  old  sward  the  first  week  in  June. 
Yard  your  cattle  at  night  on  this,  in  the  proportion  of  six 
head  at  least  to  a  quarter  of  an  acre,  until  the  20th  of  July. 
Then  harrow  lengthwise  the  furrows,  so  as  not  to  disturb  or 
overturn  them,  and  sow  in  the  proportion  of  about  half  a 
pound  of  seed  per  acre. 

'  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  yard  cattle  upon  it  sufficiently, 
about  two  inches  of  well  rotted  manure  harrowed  in  as 
above  will  do  as  a  substitute.  Mr,  C.  R.  Colden  applies  the 
manure  by  strewing  it  in  shallow  furrows  two  feet  apart, 
then  buries  the  manure  by  two  side  furrows,  and  harrows  the 
ground  level,  lengthwise  of  the  furrows.  This  method  re- 
quires less  manure,  and  he  has  the  advantage  of  hoeing  the 
turnips  in  drills.' 

We  recollect,  likewise,  that  we  have  read  in  several  of  our 
New  England  newspapers,  that  fine  turnips  have  been  raised 


288  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

by  ploughing  up  old  sward  ground  some  time  in  June,  har- 
rowing well,  and  sowing  from  the  1st  to  the  20th  of  July, 
and  this  without  the  application  of  manure.  But  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  folding  sheep  or  horned  cattle  on  the  land 
thus  ploughed  would  very  much  enhance  tiie  crop. 

All  American  writers  on  this  subject,  whose  works  we 
have  perused,  advise  to  sow  seed  of  the  common  English  tur- 
nip as  late  as  about  the  middle  of  July.  They  tell  us  that 
late  sowed  turnips  are  much  the  best  for  the  table,  and  that 
they  are  less  liable  to  be  injured  by  insects,  if  sown  so  late, 
than  when  sown  much  earlier  in  the  season. 

Turnips  are  frequently,  if  not  most  generally,  raised  in  the 
United  States  as  a  second  crop,  and  no  doubt  this  practice 
is  often  very  eligible  and  may  be  perfectly  consonant  with 
the 'soundest  maxims  of  good  husbandry.  But  when  it  is 
intended  to  make  the  most  of  your  crop  of  turnips,  or  to  obtain 
as  great  a  product  as  possible  for  the  purpose  of  feeding 
cattle,  we  do  not  perceive  any  objection  to  giving  turnips  a 
larger  portion  of  the  season  to  grow  in  than  has  been  with 
us  tbe  general  practice. 

An  English  writer  on  agriculture,  whose  remarks  on  this 
and  other  agricultural  topics  appear  to  us  to  be  judicious, 
and  to  display  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subjects  of  his 
essays,  says,  '  It  is  not  pretended  that  there  lies  any  solid 
objections  to  early  sowing  of  turnips,  simply  considered ;  on 
the  contrary,  such  seems  to  be  the  most  proper  means  of  ob- 
taining a  full  crop  ;  but  the  advantages  of  early  sowing, 
whatever  they  be,  are  given  up,  and  the  season  postponed 
from  near  three  to  five  months  by  way  of  retarding  the 
growth  of  the  crop,  that  it  may  last  to  a  later  period  in  the 
spring,  and  rcceiv^e  less  damage  from  the  frosts  than  that  to 
which  it  would  be  liable  in  its  early  matarity.  The  disad- 
vantages attending  this  plan  are  a  c^op  far  inferior  in  weight 
to  Avhat  might  be  obtained  from  the  land ;  the  very  common 
risk  of  destruction  from  drought  and  fly.  The  weight  and 
perfection  of  the  turnips  being  the  objects,  the  land  may  be 
got  ready  for  them  as  for  any  other  early  spring  crop,  and 
the  seed  sown  with  the  first  warm  showers.  This  will  afford 
ample  scope  for  resowing,  should  the  first  seed  fail,  of  which, 
however,  granting  it  to  be  good,  and  the  land  sufficiently 
fine,     believe  there  is  scarcely  any  risk.' 

'  x\s  to  any  advantages  of  a  crop  previous  to  the  turnips, 
nothiaQf  scarcely  can  stand  in  competition  with  the  first  crop 
of  roots. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  269 

'  The  true  turnip  soil  is  a  deep  sand  or  sandy  loam.  Every 
gardener  knows  the  proper  time  to  begin  hoeing  turnips.  In 
general,  when  the  plants  spread  a  circle  of  about  four  inches 
they  are  ready  for  the  first  hoeing.  They  are  commonly 
left  about  a  foot  asunder.  The  second  hoeing  three  weeks 
after  the  first.' 

Those  who  desire  to  go  extensively  and  successfully  into 
the  turnip  culture  should  raise  their  own  seed  from  the  finest 
transplanted  roots.  An  English  cultivator  says,  '  It  is  won- 
derful what  a  small  quantity  of  seed  suffices  for  an  acre  of 
ground,  and  indeed  equally  so  how  it  can  be  delivered  and 
spread  over  such  a  breadth.  A  pint  might  be  more  than 
enough,  but  it  is  usual  to  broad-cast  a  quart  on  an  acre.' 

Dr.  Deane's  New  England  Farmer  asserts  that  '  the  quanti- 
ty of  seed  sov/n  on  an  acre  is  never  less  than  one  pound,  fre- 
quently a  pound  and  a  half,  and  by  some  two.  According 
to  the  same  work  it  is  very  necessary  for  the  success  of  the 
crop  that  a  heavy  roller  be  passed  over  the  field  immediately 
after  harrowing  in  the  seed,  provided  the  ground  is  sufficient- 
ly dry,  or  as  soon  as  it  is  in  a  fit  condition.  By  this  means 
the  clods  are  broken,  and  much  of  the  seed  that  would  other- 
wise be  exposed  to  birds,  &c.  will  be  covered  and  the  surface 
rendered  smooth  and  compact  thereby,  and  consequently 
more  retentive  of  moisture,  which  will  greatly  promote  the 
vegetation  of  the  seed  and  growth  of  the  plants. 

If  a  quantity  of  lime  were  sowed  over  the  field  immediately 
after  putting  in  the  seed,  it  would  probably  preserve  the  crop 
against  insects  and  prevent  the  turnips  becoming  spongy,  as 
well  as  increase  their  size.  Unleached  ashes,  soot,  and  plas- 
ter, have  also  been  highly  recommended  as  manure  for  tur- 
nips. Thomas  Mellville,  Jun.  Esq.,  of  Pittsfield,  Massachu- 
setts, in  raising  a  crop  which  received  the  premium  from  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  society  in  1817,  and  which 
amounted  to  about  seven  hundred  and  fifty  bushels  to  the 
acre,  sowed  his  seeds  in  drills  of  twenty-eight  inches  the  21st 
of  June,  on  ground  previously  well  manured.  The  following 
day  sowed  on  the  acre  thirty  bushels  slacked  lime  and  fifteen 
bushels  house  ashes. 

What  we  have  said  about  the  early  sowing  of  turnips  we 
would  merely  suggest  as  a  hint,  or  something  to  be  thought 
of,  and  perhaps  become  a  matter  of  experiment.  It  appears 
to  us  that  our  custom  of  sowing  turnips  so  late  in  the  season 
as  is  commonly  practised,  is  an  usage  borrowed  from  British 
husbandry  without  duly  considering  the  difference  of  our 
23^ 


270  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

climate  from  that  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  different  uses  to 
which  this  crop  is  commonly  applied  in  the  two  countries. 
In  England  they  usually  feed  turnips  off  the  ground  with 
sheep ;  or  draw  them  for  neat  cattle  during  the  winter  as 
fast  as  they  are  wanted,  and  often  let  them  stand  in  the  field 
till  spring,  to  supply  green  food  for  sheep  at  the  time  of  their 
yeaning,  &c.  But  in  the  United  States,  this  crop  must  be 
harvested  in  autumn  and  secured  from  frost ;  and  it  would 
seem  to  be  desirable  that  they  should  have  had  time  to  ob- 
tain their  full  growth  before  they  are  gathered. 

'  Ellis,  an  old  writer  on  husbandry,  says,  "  Turnips  sooted 
about  twenty-four  hours  after  they  are  up  will  be  entirely 
secured  from  the  fly."  Some  advise,  and  it  may  oe  well,  if 
not  too  much  trouble,  to  leach  soot  and  sprinkle  the  young 
turnips  with  the  liquor.  M'Mahon,  in  treating  of  the  culti- 
vation of  turnips,  says,  "  the  plants  should  be  left  from  seven 
to  twelve  inches  every  way ;  this  must  be  regulated  accord- 
ing to  the  strength  of  the  land,  the  time  of  sowing,  and  the 
kind  of  turnips  cultivated ;  strong  ground  and  early  sowing 
always  producing  the  largest  roots." 

'  The  width  of  the  hoe  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  me- 
dium distance  to  be  left  between  the  plants,  and  this  to  their 
expected  size. 

'  The  critical  time  of  the  first  hoeing  is,  when  the  plants, 
as  they  lie  spread  on  the  ground,  are  nearly  the  size  of  the 
palm  of  the  hand ;  if,  however,  seed-weeds  be  numerous  and 
luxuriant,  they  ought  to  be  checked  before  the  turnip  plants 
arrive  at  that  size  ;  lest,  being  drawn  up  tall  and  slender, 
they  should  acquire  a  weak  and  sickly  habit. 

'  A  second  hoeing  should  be  given  when  the  leaves  are 
grown  to  the  height  of  eight  or  nine  inches,  in  order  to  de- 
stroy weeds,  loosen  the  earth,  and  finally  to  regulate  the 
plants ;  a  third,  if  found  necessary,  may  be  given  at  any  sub- 
sequent period. 

'  Here  will  the  farmer  exclaim  against  the  expense  and 
trouble  of  hoeing  ;  but  let  him  try  one  acre  in  this  way,  and 
leave  another  of  the  same  quality  to  nature,  as  is  too  fre- 
quently done,  and  he  will  find  that  the  extra  produce  of  the 
hoed  acre  will  more  than  compensate  for  the  labor  bestowed. 

'  Loudon  says  archbishop  Garrie,  a  Scottish  gardener  of 
merit,  tried  steeping  the  seed  in  sulphur,  sowinjj  soot,  ashes, 
and  sea-sand  along  the  drills,  all  without  effect.  At  last  he 
tried  dusting  the  rows,  when  the  plants  were  in  the  seed-leaf, 
with  quicklime,  and  found  that  effectual  in  preventing  the 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  271 

depredations  of  the  fly.  "  A  bushel  of  quicktime,"  he  says, 
'•  is  sufficient  to  dust  over  an  acre  of  drilled  turnips,  and  a 
boy  may  soon  be  taught  to  lay  it  on  almost  as  fast  as  he 
could  walk  along  the  drills.  If  the  seminal  leaves  are  pow- 
dered in  the  slightest  degree,  it  is  sufficient ;  but  should  the 
rain  wash  the  lime  off'  before  the  turnips  are  in  the  rough 
leaf,  it  may  be  necessary  to  repeat  the  operation,  if  the  fly 
begins  to  make  its  appearance." ' 


POTATOES.  Above  two  hundred  and  forty  years  have 
elapsed  since  the  introduction  of  the  potato  into  the  British 
isles.  During  that  period,  it  has  been  gradually  making  its 
way  in  the  favor  of  the  inhabitants ;  but  its  progress  for  a 
long  time  was  very  limited.  So  slight,  indeed,  was  the  esti- 
mation in  which  it  was  held,  even  after  the  era  of  the  revo- 
lution, that  we  find  the  celebrated  Evelyn,  in  the  year  1699, 
giving  directions  to  plant  potatoes  in  the  worst  grounds. 
^  Take  them  up,'  he  says,  '  in  November,  for  winter  spending ; 
there  will  enough  remain  for  a  stock,  though  they  be  ever  so 
exactly  gathered.' 

The  potato  began  however  to  be  extensively  cultivated 
about  the  middle  of  the  last  century ;  and  now  it  is  grown  in 
every  farm  and  cottage  garden,  almost  without  exception. 

If  experience  seemed  to  have  proved  beyond  a  doubt  that 
this  root  may  be  deemed  one  of  the  most  important  vegeta- 
ble productions ;  if,  in  the  face  of  every  assertion  to  the 
contrary,  it  be  found  a  very  valuable  and,  generally  speak- 
ing, a  most  salubrious  article^  of  diet,  and  admirably 
adapted  to  supply  nutritious  food  for  animals  and  poultry  ; 
it  becomes  a  serious  interest  to  determine  with  certainty 
that  mode  of  culture  which  shall  at  all  times,  and  in  all  situ- 
ations, tend  to  produce  the  heaviest  crops,  and  of  the  finest 
quality. 

*  It  has  been  argued  that  the  potato,  at  least  under  certain  conditions, 
possesses  a  slightly  poisonous  quality.  The  idea  may  have  originated  in 
the  botanic  character  of  the  plant  ;  in  fact,  it  is  one  of  the  family  of  the 
nightshade,  the  solanum  tiiberomm  of  Linnaeus,  and  of  the  old  natural  or- 
der liiridcE,  which  included  plants  whose  appearance  was  described  as  be- 
ing '  uusky,  dismal,  and  gloomy.'  The  genus  or  family  solanum  is  the 
type  of  that  numerous  tribe  or  order  in  the  natural  system,  sulanea,  many 
of  whose  members  exhibit  great  beauty  of  appearance  and  possess  very 
useful  properties. 


272  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

The  common  mode  of  planting  and  cultivating  the  potato 
is  known  to  every  cottager  and  farming  man ;  but  that  phi- 
losophic method  which  has  recently  been  productive  of  enor- 
mous returns,  may,  perhaps,  be  referred  chiefly,  if  not  entire- 
ly, to  the  scientific  president  of  the  Horticultural  society. 
This  method  it  is  my  object  to  describe,  through  the  medium 
of  your  pages ;  but  before  I  enter  upon  the  detail  of  Mr. 
Knight's  directions,  I  think  it  a  duty  to  request  the  reader's 
attention  to  a  few  important  results,  the  particulars  of  which 
have  been  stated  to  me  in  letters  lately  received  from  that 
gentleman.  As  facts,  and  very  recent  ones,  they  are  pecu- 
liarly interesting,  not  only  as  they  decisively  show  what 
may  be,  and  has  been  effected  during  the  late  season,  but 
also  because  they  prove,  to  a  demonstration,  that  science 
and  "hypothesis  may  go  hand  in  hand  with  practice ;  and 
that,  when  the  latter  is  founded  upon  the  former,  it  loses  alto- 
gether its  empirical  character,  and  becomes  established  upon 
the  most  unassailable  basis. 

Mr.  Knight  has  observed,  that  he  planted  his  potatoes 
upon  a  soil  naturally  'poor  and  very  shallow,  upon  a  rock 
full  of  fissures,  giving  no  more  manure  than  is  usually  given 
to  a  crop  of  tur7iips ;  the  manure  was  mixed  up  with  the 
soil,  and  not  thrown  into  the  drills  at  the  time  of  planting. 
The  plants  suffered  from  drought  during  a  part  of  the  year ; 
nevertheless,  he  had  very  good  crops  from  many  varieties. 
These  varieties  he  had  himself  originated  from  seed,  and  they 
possess  the  important  quality  of  scarcely  producing  any  blos- 
soms ;  and  therefore  the  vital  powers  of  the  plant  are  en- 
tirely employed  in  the  production  and  support  of  those  tube- 
rous processes,  the  potatoes,  which  are  the  sole  object  of  the 
cultivator.  The  produce  of  two  of  the  sorts  is  particularly 
stated  to  me,  and  is  as  follows :  of  the  one,  twenty-three 
tons  two  hundred  weight  seventy-six  pounds ;  and  the 
other,  twenty  tons  two  hundred  weight  one  hundred  and 
one  pounds,  per  acre.  Of  four  other  varieties  he  observes, 
'  the  produce  exceeded  twenty  tons  each  per  acre,  all  of  good 
quality.'  If  the  reader  will  reduce  these  weights  to  pounds, 
he  will  find  them  (reckoning  the  yield  at  twenty  tons  only 
per  acre)  to  amount  to  five  hundred  and  sixty  bushels,  each 
of  eighty  pounds  weight, 

I  In  the  winter  of  1831,  I  received  a  packet  from  Mr. 
Knight,  inclosing  several  specimen  potatoes  raised  by  him. 
For  the  convenience  of  carriage,  these  were  under  the  me- 
^dium  size,  weighing  about  four  ounces  each;  they  were, 


AND    KURAL    ECONOMIST.  273 

however,  perfect  in  form  and  growth.  Eight  of  them  were 
selected  and  planted  in  a  row,  each  widely  apart  one  from 
the  other.  From  these  eight  tubers,  whose  total  weight  was 
barely  two  pounds,  I  obtained  a  produce  of  one  hundred 
and  hfty-six  potatoes,  weighing,  in  all,  sixty-nine  pounds. 
Some  roots  yielded  more  than  others  ;  one  was  peculiarly 
prolific  ; — it  furnished  eighteen  pounds  of  potatoes,  six  of  the 
largest  of  which  weighed  ten  pounds. 

Having  thus  adduced  a  few  general  facts,  it  remains  to 
point  out  the  mode  of  operation  by  which  such  large  results 
may  be  obtained. 

One  of  the  chief,  if  not  the  primary,  agent  in  effecting 
vegetable  development  and  maturity,  is  light.  Deprive  a 
plant  of  that.,  and  you  either  paralyze  the  operation  of  its 
vital  principle,  or  induce  imperfect  and  diseased  action.  The 
leaves  of  vegetables  are  the  media  upon  which  light  acts ; 
and,  therefore,  it  should  be  the  object  of  the  gardener  so  to 
arrange  his  crops,  that  the  utmost  breadth  of  their  foliage 
may  be  exposed  to  the  full  influence  of  the  solar  rays. 
Hence,  the  rows  of  potatoes  ought  to  'point  north  and  south  ; 
for,  in  the  first  place,  plants  so  exposed  command  the  great- 
est breadth  and  duration  of  light ;  and  in  the  second,  the  sun 
at  the  time  of  his  highest  meridian  altitude,  that  is,  at  the 
hour  of  noon,  shines  directly  along  the  extent  of  the  rows ; 
his  light  is  also  most  equally  distributed  upon  the  whole 
foliage  as  he  approaches  to  and  recedes  from  the  meridian. 
The  perpendicularity  of  growth,  which  is  of  considerable 
importance  to  the  complete  success  of  the  crop,  is  less  likely 
to  be  disturbea  by  this  mode  of  arrangement,  than  by  any 
other  that  has  heretofore  been  employed.  It  is  generally  the 
practice  to  plant  small  potatoes,  or  sets  of  large  tubeis,  cut 
with  one  or  two  eyes  to  each.  These  sets  are  planted  in 
rows  from  sixteen  to  twenty  inches  asunder,  and  the  sets 
about  half  that  distance,  or  nine  inches  apart,  without  any 
consideration  being  had  to  the  aspect  or  direction  of  the 
rows.  As  the  stems  advance  in  growth,  they  are  very  liable 
to  fall  over  and  become  entangled  one  with  another,  thus  in- 
tercepting the  solar  light,  which  then  acts  unequally  upon 
the  disorderly  masses  of  foliage.  Hence  the  crops  become 
very  unequal  in  point  of  bulk  and  weight. 

Mr.  Knight's  philosophical  directions  lead  to  a  very  diffe- 
rent result.  He  recommends  the  planting  of  whole  potatoes, 
and  those  only  which  are  of  fine  medium  size,  none  to  be  of 
less  weight  than  four  ounces ;  and  he  often  prefers  those 


274  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

which  weigh  six  or  eight  ounces.  The  earlier  sorts,  and. 
indeed,  all  which  seldom  attain  a  greater  height  than  two 
feet,  are  to  be  planted  about  four  or  five  inches  apart  in  the 
rows,  centre  from  centre,  the  crown  ends  upward  ;  the  rows 
to  be  from  two  feet  six  inches  to  three  feet  asunder.  The 
late  potatoes,  which  produce  a  haulm  above  three  feet  in 
height,  are  to  be  placed  five  or  six  inches  apart,  centre  from 
centre,  in  rows  four  or  five  feet  asunder. 

When  potatoes  are  thus  planted  in  rows  pointing  north 
and  south,  the  utmost  energy  of  the  light  will  be  exerted, 
not  only  upon  the  foliage  of  the  plant,  but  upon  the  surface 
of  the  intervening  spaces  of  ground.  If  we  suppose  that  the 
main  crops  will  be  planted  at  the  latter  end  of  March  and 
during  the  month  of  April,  the  sun's  meridional  altitude  will 
be  advancing  daily  for  at  least  nine  weeks  ;  and  during  that 
period,  the  development  and  growth  of  the  stem  and  leaves 
will  be  in  a  state  of  rapid  progress.  After  the  turn  of  days, 
and  when  the  plants  have  attained  their  full  growth,  the  sun 
will  continue  to  exert  its  most  powerful  influence.  Should 
the  ground  be  of  a  proper  texture  and  quality,  the  plants 
will  stand  erect,  and  the  maturing  process  will  proceed  with- 
out interruption ;  and  after  favorable  summers,  wherein 
there  have  been  regular  and  moderate  supplies  of  rain,  par- 
ticularly during  May  and  June,  with  a  prevalence,  however, 
of  bricrht  sunshine,  the  crops  of  potatoes  will  be  regular,  the 
tubers  generally  of  a  medium  size,  and  the  quality  mealy, 
and  altogether  superior.  If  the  soil  be  a  strong  mellow 
loam,  enriched  with  much  manire,  the  haulm  will,  in  all  pro- 
bability, grow  too  rank,  and  finally  fall  over;  nevertheless 
the  large  spaces  between  the  rows  will  grcL^tly  remedy  this 
evil,  for  the  sun's  beams  will  act  upon  one  surface  at  the 
least,  and  the  matting  and  other  injurious  consequences  re- 
sulting from  close  drilling  will  be  prevented  or  obviated.  I 
cannot  refrain,  in  this  place,  from  correcting  an  erroneous 
opinion,  which  almost  universally  prevails.  We  hear  every- 
where of  potato  plants  running  away  to  haulm,  and  thus  ex- 
pending their  vital  energy  upon  useless  stem  and  foliage,  in- 
stead of  employing  it  in  the  production  of  tuberous  roots. 
Now  this  remark  is  wholly  opposed  to  philosophical  fact,  for 
invariably  the  strongest  and  heaviest  bulk  of  potatoes  is 
found  attached  to  the  most  luxuriant  haulm.  The  evil  of 
over-luxuriance  is  not  to  be  referred  to  the  paucity  of  tube- 
rous product,  for  that  is  always  great ;  it  is  a  consequence 
of  an  over-rich  soil,  which  causes  the  haulm  to  grow  so  tall 


AND    RURAL   ECONOMIST.  275 

as  to  fall  over,  become  entangled,  and  thus  to  lose  the  ma- 
turing influence  of  light.  Hence,  such  haulm  seldom  ripens 
in  due  time  ;  it  remains  green  even  in  December  ;  and  the 
tubers,  though  large,  numerous,  and  heavy,  are  immature, 
void  of  mealiness,  and  vapid  in  flavor. 

A  fact  of  great  importance  to  the  growers  of  potatoes  re- 
mains to  be  noticed.  The  outside  rows,  and  all  single  rotes, 
will  be  found  to  produce  far  greater  crops  than  any  of  the 
interior  rows  of  a  plot  in  the  garden  or  field.  This  depends 
upon  a  variety  of  causes,  the   chief  of  which  is,   the  more 

fjerfect  exposure  <flP  the  foliage  to  the  agency  of  air  and 
ight.  Mr.  Knight  assures  me,  that  he  obtained  from  one 
outside  row  of  an  early  seedling  variety  of  the  preceding 
year,  which  was  two  feet  six  inches  exterior  of  an  adjoining 
row,  '  a  produce  equivalent  to  more  than  fifty-eight  tons  per 
acre.  No  conclusions,'  he  adds,  '  can  be  drawn  from  the 
amount  of  produce  of  an  external  row.  I  mention  it  only 
to  show  the  enormous  influence  of  light.'' 

In  this  philosophical  remark  I  cordially  acquiesce,  because 
experience  has  established  its  truth  to  my  own  satisfaction. 
I  therefore  earnestly  recommend  every  cultivator,  who  has 
the  opportunity  of  cropping  upon  long  detached  slips,  in  airy, 
open  situations,  to  make  the  experiment  of  close  planting  in 
single  rows,  either  whole  potatoes  or  well-cut  sets  from  very 
large  potatoes,  each  to  contain  two  eyes  at  the  least.  These 
sets  should  be  taken  from  the  crown  end,  or  middle  of  the 
tuber,  and  not  from  tiie  lower  or  root  end  ;  as  I  have  found 
the  latter  to  be  comparatively  unproductive.  Sets  may  be 
planted  at  still,  less  distances  in  the  rows  than  whole  tubers; 
and  although  the  preference  ought,  in  all  cases,  to  be  given 
to  a  southern  direction,  where  such  can  be  conveniently 
given,  still,  for  absolutely  single  lows,  it  is  not  indispensably 
required,  because  air  and  light  will  act  on  each  side  of  the 
stem  and  foliage,  and  there  will  be  no  intervening  shadow. 

The  soil  ought  to  be  sandy  and  light,  though  moderately 
rich  ;  that  is,  if  fine  mealy  and  dry  potatoes  be  required.  It 
should  not  by  any  means  be  glutted  with  manure,  and  need 
not  be  deep.  I  have  found  no  particular  advantage  in 
trenching  for  this  crop ;  in  fact,  I  am  credibly  informed  by 
an  observant  gentleman,  who  has  travelled  extensively,  that 
in  North  America,  the  finest  potatoes  are  produced  in  extra- 
ordinary quantities  upon  grass  meadows,  by  simply  turning 
up  the  turf  by  placing  the  grass  surface  downward  upon 
them. 


276  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

With  respect  to  the  properties  of  this  vegetable  and  the 
purposes  to  which  it  may  be  apphed,  the  following  observa- 
tions of  an  eminent  physician  may  not  be  deemed  inappro- 
priate. I  extract  them  from  the  '  Pharmacologia  of  Dr. 
Pare. 

'  Potatoes  are  found  to  produce, 

First,  Cottony  flax  from  the  stalk. 

Second,  Sugar  from  the  root. 

Third,  Potass  by  consumption. 

Fourth,  Vinegar  from  the  apples. 

Fifth,  Soap,  or  a  substitute  for  bleachiTig,  from  the  tuber- 
cles. 

And,  finally,  when  cooked  by  steam,  the  most  farinaceous 
and  economical  of  all  vegetable  food.' 

It  is  also  known  that  much  farina,  or  rather  amylum,  or 
starch,  is  yielded  by  grinding  and  washing  the  pnlpy  mass. 
My  experiments  in  1828  led  me  to  ascertain,  that  a  fine, 
mealy  sort  yielded  from  one-eighth  to  one-seventh  of  the 
total  weight  of  the  potatoes.  This  starch  may  be  employed 
as  a  substitute  for  that  made  from  wheat  ;  and  as  an  article 
of  diet,  prepared  as  Indian  arrow-root.  It  can  also  be  intro- 
duced in  making  bread,  though  there  is  some  diihculty  in  the 
manipulation.  As  food  for  all  cattle  of  the  farm — horses, 
cows,  pigs,  and  likewise  for  poultry,  potatoes  are  all  but 
invaluable.  Every  creature  appears  to  relish  them,  par- 
ticularly when  they  are  steamed  or  caiefully  boiled.  It 
would  be  well  worth  the  intelligent  farmer's  while  to  pay 
great  attention  to  the  use  and  effects  of  potatoes,  raw  and 
boiled.  It  is  asserted  that  a  cow  may  safely  eat  them  in  a 
raw  state  to  the  extent  of,  perhaps,  fifty  pounds  per  day,  pro- 
vided the  eyes  have  broken  and  began  to  shoot.  Whenever 
they  be  given  raw,  however,  they  should  be  chopped  into 
pieces  to  prevent  accidents.  The  utility  of  raw  potatoes  is, 
however,  doubted  by  many,  and  therefore  the  experiment 
requires  close  observation ;  perhaps  straAv,  hay,  and  chaff, 
might  be  employed  as  a  very  proper  adjunct,  with  a  few 
ounces  of  salt  added  to  each  feed.  Whenever  steaming  in 
the  large  way  can  be  profitably  employed,  it  must  be  an  ad- 
vantage for  pigs  and  poultry  particularly  ;  and,  in  all  cases, 
it  would  greatly  tend  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  the  danger 
of  suffocation  which  has  been  known  to  result  from  the 
hurry  and  greediness  with  which  cattle  devour  the  raw  roots. 
— British  Farme'r^s  Magazine. 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST.  277 

Potatoes  reviewed  from  Seed.  '  Take  the  apples  in  the 
beginning  of  October  [or  whenever  they  are  ripe]  before  the 
frost  has  hurt  them ;  hang  them  up  by  the  foot  stalks  in  a 
dry  closet,  where  they  will  ncrt  freeze ;  let  them  hang  till 
March  or  April ;  then  mash  the  apples,  wash  the  seeds  from 
the  pulp,  and  dry  them  in  a  sunny  window.  Sow  the  seeds 
in  a  bed,  about  the  first  of  May.  When  the  plants  are  f.jur 
or  five  inches  high,  transplant  them  into  ground  well  pre- 
pared, ore  or  two  plants  in  a  hill.  They  will  produce  full 
grown  apples,  and  some  of  the  roots  will  be  as  large  as  hen's 
eggs.  But  if  the  seeds  were  sown  in  autumn,  some  of  them 
would  come  up  in  the  following  spring.  Nothing  is  more 
common  than  their  appearance  in  fields  where  potatoes  have 
been  raised  the  preceding  year.' 

The  process  stated  in  '  Monk's  Agricultural  Dictionary,'' 
an  English  work,  is  similar  to  that  mentioned  by  Dr.  Deane, 
excepting  that  it  is  recommended  in  that  work  to  hang  the 
apples  of  the  potatoes  in  a  warm  room  till  Christmas.  Then 
wash  Ot.t  the  seeds,  spread  and  dry  them  in  paper,  and  pre- 
serve them  from  damps  till  spring.' 

Potatoes  thus  obtained  will  produce  roots  of  the  full  size 
the  second  season  after  sowing,  when  their  qualities  may  be 
more  fully  ascertained  than  they  could  well  be  the  first  sea- 
son. They  will  be  found  to  vary  very  much  from  the  kinds, 
from  which  the  apples  were  gathered.  It  will  be  expedient 
to  plant  but  one  potato  of  the  regenerated  sorts  in  a  hill, 
that  you  may  keep  each  variety  separate.  Then,  by  keep- 
ing the  produce  of  each  hill  by  itself,  and  boiling  one  or  two 
of  each,  you  may  ascertain  which  is  be^t  for  the  table  :  and 
by  observing  the  quantity  of  produce  in  each  hill,  you  may 
form  a  pretty  good  estimate  relative  to  the  productiveness  of 
each  sort.  In  that  way  you  may  introduce  new  varieties  of 
potatoes,  and  supply  yourself  and  neighbors,  and  eventually 
the  market,  with  potatoes  of  a  quality  much  superior  to  any 
of  the  worn  out  and  degenerate  kinds  which  are  now  to  be 
found.  The  subject  is  of  importance,  and  the  man  who  will 
introduce  new  and  improved  sorts  of  potatoes,  will  deserre 
hut  little  less  of  his  country  than  he  who  improves  our 
breeds  of  domestic  animals. 


COTTON.     (Gossypium.)     There    are  many  varieties  of 
this  plant,  all  of  which   are  natives  of  warm  climates,  but 
24 


278  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

only  four  are  cultivated.  In  Georgia  and  South  Carolina 
two  kinds  are  planted.  One  grows  on  the  upland,  has  a 
short  staple,  with  green  seed.  Another  has  black  seed,  and 
is  cultivated  on  the  islands  near  the  coast. 

Pierce  Butler,  Esq.  a  successful  cultivator,  has  given  the 
following  directions  for  raising  this  article : 

'  If  the  land  has  been  recently  cleared,  or  has  long  remained 
fallow,  turn  it  up  deep  in  winter  ;  and  in  the  first  week  in 
March  bed  it  up  in  the  following  manner  :  Form  twenty-five 
beds  in  one  hundred  and  five  square  feet  of  land  ;  (being  the 
space  alloted  to  each  laborer  for  a  day's  work  ;)  this  leaves 
about  four  feet  two  and  one  half  inches  from  the  centre  of 
one  bed  to  the  centre  of  the  next.  The  beds  should  be  three 
feet  wide,  flat  in  the  middle.  About  the  15th  of  March,  in 
latitude  from  twenty-nine  to  thirty  degrees,  the  cultivator 
should  commence  sowing,  or,  as  it  is  generally  termed,  plant- 
ing. The  seed  should  be  well  scattered  in  open  trenches, 
made  in  the  centre  of  the  beds,  and  covered.  The  proportion 
of  seed  is  one  busliel  to  one  acre  ;  this  allows  for  accidents 
occasioned  by  worms  or  night  chills.  The  cotton  should  be 
well  weeded  by  hoes  once  every  twelve  days  till  blown,  and 
even  longer  if  there  is  grass,  observing  to  hoe  up,  that  is,  to 
the  cotton,  till  it  pods,  and  hoe  down  when  the  cotton  is 
blown,  in  order  to  check  the  growth  of  the  plant.  From 
the  proportion  of  seed  mentioned,  the  cotton  plants  will  come 
up  plentifully,  too  much  so  to  suffer  all  to  remain.  They 
should  be  thinned  moderately  at  each  hoeing.  When  the 
plants  have  got  strength  and  growth,  which  may  be  about 
the  third  hoeing,  to  disregard  worms  and  bear  drought,  they 
should  be  thinned,  according  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  from 
six  inches  to  near  two  feet  between  the  stocks  or  plants.  In 
rich  river  grounds,  the  beds  should  be  from  five  to  six  feet 
apart,  measuring  from  centre  to  centre ;  and  the  cotton 
plants,  when  out  of  the  way  of  the  worms,  from  two  to  three 
feet  apart.  It  is  advisable  to  top  cotton  once  or  twice  in 
low  grounds,  and  also  to  remove  the  suckers.  The  latter  end 
of  July  is  generally  considered  a  proper  time  for  topping. 
Gypsum  may  be  used  with  success  on  cotton  lands  not  near 
the  sea.  In  river  grounds  draining  is  proper;  yet  these 
lands  should  not  be  kept  too  dry.  In  tide  lands  it  is  benefi- 
cial to  let  the  water  flow  over  the  land  without  retaining  it. 
In  river  lands  a  change  of  crops  is  necessary.  From  actual 
experiment  it  has  been  proved  that  river  tide  lands,  having 
the  preceding  year  had  rice   sown  on  them,  yielded  much 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


279 


more  cotton  the  succeeding  year  than  they  would  have  af- 
forded by  a  continuation  of  cotton. 

The  mere  growing  of  cotton  is  but  a  part  of  the  care  of 
the  planter  ;  very  much  depends  on  classing  and  cleansing  it 
for  market,  after  it  has  been  housed.  Sorting  it  before  it  goes 
to  the  jennies,  moteing  and  removing  any  yellow  particles, 
are  essential  to  assure  a  preference  at  a  common  market  of 
competition. 


TOBACCO.  {Nicotiana.)  This  plant  is  named  from  To- 
bago, one  of  the  Caribbee  islands.  It  was  first  introduced 
into  England  by  the  famous  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  and  from 
thence  it  spread  over  the  other  parts  of  Europe. 

In  order  to  raise  the  young  plants  it  is  recommended  to 
burn  over  the  surface  of  a  piece  of  ground  earljr  in  the 
spring,  rake  it  well,  and  sow  the  seeds.  When  the  plants 
have  acquired  leaves  the  size  of  a  quarter  of  a  dollar  they 
are  fit  for  transplanting.  They  require  a  dry,  light,  rich 
soil,  made  mellow  by  ploughing,  and  folding  is  also  advised. 
Dr.  Deane  observed  that  '  the  common  way  of  raising  to- 
bncco  in  cow-pens  and  barn-yards  is  detestable.  The  taste 
of  such  tobacco  is  intolerable.  Transplant  the  young  seed- 
lings when  the  ground  is  wet,  as  you  would  cabbage  plants. 
Set  them  about  three  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  weed  them 
as  you  would  growing  cabbages.  Destroy  the  large  green 
worms,  which  are  apt  to  infest  this  crop. 

When  the  plants  have  grown  about  three  feet  high,  a  little 
less  or  more,  as  they  may  be  more  or  less  thrifty,  their  tops 
should  be  broken  or  cut  off,  excepting  those  designed  for 
seed,  which  should  be  the  largest.  The  tops  should  be  taken 
off  so  early  in  the  summer  as  to  allow  time  for  the  upper 
leaves  to  grow  to  the  same  size  as  the  lower  ones.  Of  this 
time  the  cultivator  must  judge  from  circumstances,  previous 
observations,  or  the  advice  of  some  person  accustomed  to 
raising-  tobacco.  All  the  plants  should  be  topped  at  the 
same  time,  whatever  may  be  their  height,  that  they  may 
ripen  too-ether,  and  produce  leaves  nearly  of  the  same  size 
and  thickness.  The  suckers  which  shoot  out  from  tlie  foot 
stalks  of  the  leaves  should  also  be  broken  or  pinched  off  as 
fast  as  they  appear. 

The  ripeness  of  tobacco  is  known  by  small  duskjr  spots 
appearing  on  the  leaves.     The  plants   should  then  be  cut 


280  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

near  the  roots,  on  the  morning  of  a  day  of  sunshine,  and 
should  lie  singly  to  wither.  When  sufficiently  withered  the 
plants  should  be  laid  in  close  heaps  under  cover  to  sweat 
forty-eight  hours  or  more.  After  this  they  should  be  hung 
up  under  cover  to  dry.  This  may  be  done  by  running  two 
stalks  on  the  sharp  ends  of  a  stick  about  eight  inches  long, 
and  suspending  them  across  a  pole  about  sixteen  incnes 
apart,  in  a  pretty  tight  apartment.  As  the  plants  become 
dry  they  may  be  placed  nearer  to  each  other,  to  make  room 
for  more,  if  necessary.  When  they  have  hung  till  there  is 
no  greenness  in  the  leaves,  and  at  a  time  when  the  air  is  damp, 
the  leaves  should  be  stripped  off  the  stalks,  tied  up  in  hands, 
and  packed  away  in  chests  or  casks,  well  pressed  down, 
and  kept  in  a  dry  place,  not  in  a  cellar,  which  would  soon 
spoil  the  tobacco. 

The  use  of  tobacco  for  chewing  and  snuffing  is  uncleanly, 
unwholesome,  and  becoming  unfashionable  with  the  more 
respectable  parts  of  the  community.  The  habit  of  chewing 
it,  however,  is  not  easily  broken.  A  writer  for  the  National 
Intelligencer^  with  the  signature  'J.  B.,'  states,  in  substance, 
that  he  was  suffering  under  a  pulmonary  complaint  supposed 
to  be  brought  on  by  chewing  tobacco,  and  that  by  making  a 
substitute  of  slippery  elm  bark^  and  swallowing  the  juice,  he 
at  once  got  rid  of  his  disorder  and  his  propensity  to  chew 
this  poisonous  plant.  The  dust  or  powder  of  tobacco, 
thrown  over  beas  where  plants  are  just  coming  up,  preserves 
them  from  worms.  It  is  said,  also,  that  a  few  tobacco  plants 
set  out  among  cabbages  and  turnips,  the  tobacco  plants  about 
one  rod  apart,  will  save  the  cabbages  and  turnips  from  in- 
sects. 

M.  M'Louvin,  in  Loudon's  Magazine,  observes  as  follows  : 
'  I  procure  from  the  tobacconists  a  liquor  expressed  from  to- 
bacco, to  every  gallon  of  which  I  add  five  gallons  of  water ; 
this  mixture,  with  Read's  garden  syringe,  I  sprinkle  over  the 
trees,  putting  it  on  the  finest  rose,  and  being  careful  to  wet 
all  the  leaves  ;  this  operation  is  performed  only  in  the  hot- 
test sunshine,  as  the  effect  is  then  much  greater  than  when 
the  weither  is  dull.  In  this  manner  I  have  this  spring,  with 
five  gallons  of  liquor,  reduced  as  above  stated,  cleaned  seven- 
teen peach  and  nectarine  trees,  twelve  of  which  average 
seventeen  feet  in  length  and  twelve  in  height.  The  black 
glutinous  insect,  provincially  called  blight,  so  destructive  to 
the  cherrjr  trees,  is  destroyed  in  the  same  way  with  equal 
facility.     I  have  also  found  that  the  grubs  which  attack  the 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  281 

apricot  may  be  destroyed  almost  instantly  by  immersing  the 
leav^es  infested  in  this  liquor. 

*  When  trees  have  got  so  bad  that  their  leaves  are  much 
curled,  some  of  the  flies,  being  protected  within  the  curl,  will 
escape  :  in  this  case  more  force  must  be  applied  to  the 
syringe,  and  in  a  day  or  two  the  trees  should  be  looked  over 
again,  and  whatever  part  of  the  leaves  has  not  been  wetted 
should  be  washed  with  a  painter's  brush  ;  but  a  careful  per- 
son will  render  this  process  unnecessary  by  taking  them  in 
time.' 

Instead  of  liquor  from  the  tobacconist,  w^hich  may  not  al- 
ways and  in  all  situations  be  easily  procured,  a  strong  de- 
coction of  the  stems  or  damaged  leaves  may  be  a  cheap  sub- 
stitute. The  uses  of  tobacco  in  destroying  lice  on  cattle, 
ticks  on  sheep,  &c.  are  too  well  known  to  render  it  necessary 
to  make  any  observations  on  this  application  of  a  plant 
which  seems  to  be  abhorred  by  every  animated  being  but 
man  and  the  tobacco  worm.  But  a  quantity  of  tobacco 
ought  to  be  grown  by  CA'ery  cultivator,  to  enable  him  to 
wage  successful  war  with  insects. 


PLOUGHING,  is  the  most  important  of  agricultural  ope- 
rations. On  the  manner  in  which  this  is  performed  depends 
all  the  subsequent  operations  of  tillage  on  the  same  laad. 
A  large  volume  might  well  be  written  on  this  subject,  but 
we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  practical  hints,  expressed  as 
concisely  as  is  consistent  with  perspicuity. 

In  all  stiff,  heavy,  and  adhesive  soils,  that  are  much  dis- 
posed to  moisture,  it  should  be  a  common  rule  not  to  plough 
them  while  wet  in  any  considerable  degree,  especially  if 
there  is  much  clay  in  their  composition.  When  such  land 
is  ploughed  wet,  the  particles  of  which  it  is  composed  are 
apt  to  cake,  or  run  together  into  hard  lumps,  which  require 
much  trouble  and  labor  to  reduce  to  a  fine  state.  Besides, 
much  injury  is  produced  by  the  treading  of  the  team,  and 
greater  power  is  necessary  in  performing  the  operation. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  such  soils  are  ploughed  with  much 
difficulty  when  very  dry  ;  unless  before  the  ploughing  they 
were  in  a  state  of  tillage,  and  not  baked  or  bound  down  very 
hard.  To  break  up  grass  ground  composed  of  a  strong  loam, 
or  a  soil  in  wliich  there  is  clay  in  any  considerable  quantity, 
when  in  a  dry  state,  is  next  to  impossible.  You  might  al- 
24# 


282  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

most  as  well  attempt  to  plough  up  a  brick  pavement  or  slate 
rock.  Green  sward  in  general  can  hardly  be  ploughed  too 
wet,  if  it  be  not  miry.  Marshy,  moory,  and  peaty  or  mossy 
descriptions  of  soil  should  in  general,  when  already  reduced 
to  a  state  of  tillage,  be  ploughed  when  the  season  is  dry. 

In  dry,  sandy,  and  perhaps  in  some  of  the  more  mellow 
kinds  of  loamy  soils,  the  business  of  ploughing  may  be  per- 
formed when  the  earth  is  in  a  state  of  considerable  moisture. 
But  very  dry  sandy  land,  whenever  the  weather  is  hot  and 
dry,  should  merely  be  stirred  in  such  a  way  as  may  be  ne- 
cessary to  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds;  otherwise  the 
great  exhalation  of  moisture  in  such  seasons  may  render 
them  too  dry  for  the  vigorous  vegetation  of  the  seeds  or 
plants  which  may  be  sown  or  growing  upon  them.  The 
cultivators  of  this  kind  of  soil  have,  therefore,  many  ad- 
vantages over  others  who  are  engaged  in  the  more  stiff  and 
heavy  sorts  of  land,  in  being  able  to  perform  the  various 
operation!  of  arable  husbandry  with  much  less  strength  and 
expense  of  team,  and  by  being  much  less  interrupted  by  the 
wetness  of  the  seasons.  Stiff  clayey  soils,  which  are  al- 
ready under  the  plough,  may  be  beneficially  ploughed  in  dry 
weather,  and  it  is  said  that  stirring  such  soils  in  a  dry  sea- 
son causes  them  to  imbibe  moisture,  but  in  sandy  soils  the 
opposite  result  is  produced  by  the  same  means. 

It  is  very  fashionable,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  very  correct 
to  recommend  deep  ploughing.  But  this  rule  has  a  great 
many  exceptions,  and  the  cultivator  who  should  be  governed 
by  it  without  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  pro- 
posed crops,  would  only  labor  hard  to  injure  his  land  and 
reduce  his  products. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  attend  to  what  some  writers  have 
observed  respecting  the  dangers  and  disadvantages  which 
attend  ploughing  deep  without  regard  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil  and  other  circumstances.  It  is  observed  in  Dickson's 
Agriculture,  that  '  though  deep  ploughing  has  been  recom- 
mended by  some  modern  writers  upon  particular  kinds  of 
land,  where  the  bottom  and  top  were  of  two  opposite  quali- 
ties, and  neither  of  them  perfectly  good,  that  a  mixture  may 
sometimes  be  very  beneficial,  and  the  experiment  of  going 
below  the  common  depth  sometimes  answer  ;  but  that  when 
the  top  and  bottom  for  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  depth  con- 
sists of  the  same  soil,  it  is  not  believed  it  is  ever  worth  while 
to  exchange  the  upper  part,  which  has  been  enriched  for 
centuries  back,  for  a  part  less  rich,  merely  because  it  is 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  283 

more  fresh.  On  retentive  soils,  where  the  practice  of  loosen- 
ing them  to  some  depth  by  other  implements  is  omitted,  deep 
ploughing  is  however  extremely  necessary.' 

In  an  '  Essay  on  the  best  means  of  converting  Grass  Lands 
into  Tillage,  by  James  Roper  Head,  Esq.,'  published  in  Com- 
munications to  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii.  page  346, 
it  is  observed  that  '  it  seems  reasonable  to  prefer  light  to 
heavy  ploughing,  because,  all  things  being  equal,  it  must  be 
preferable  to  have  a  small  depth  of  soil  to  cultivate  and  im- 
prove ;  and  inasmuch  as  the  fibres  of  grass  in  general  are  fed 
from  the  upper  surface  of  the  earth  alone,  if  they  find  suffi- 
cient pabulum,  all  that  lie  underneath  their  nourishment, 
and  has  been  with  much  labor  moved  by  the  plough,  is  like  a 
stock  in  trade,  which  requires  an  extra  capital,  unproductive 
of  interest. 

'  1  have  endeavored  by  all  means  to  search  into  the  nature 
of  sainfoin,  clover,  and  lucerne,  and  the  result  of  my  opinion 
has  been  that  the  long  penetrating  tap-roots  of  these  grasses 
pierce  the  earth  in  search  of  moisture  only  ;  that  the  tap- 
root is  the  mere  syphon  and  duct ;  that  the  branches  of  the 
crown  of  the  plant  are  fed  alone  by  the  upper  surface  of  the 
soil ;  and  that  the  luxuriancy  of  their  produce  depends  not 
upon  the  congeniality  of  the  bed  or  iiidus  [nest]  of  the  tap- 
root itself,  but  on  the  congeniality  of  the  soil  of  the  upper 
surface,  which  alone  feeds  and  furnishes  it  vegetation.' 

An  article  in  '  Communications  to  the  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture,' vol.  iv.  page  147,  written  by  John  M.  Mardo,  Esq., 
contains  the  fallowing  statement  :  '  We  have  witnessed  in- 
stances where  old  pasture  lands  composed  of  a  gravelly  loam 
were  broken  up  in  the  spring  for  barley  by  trench  plough- 
ing. The  old  sward  was  turned  into  the  bottom  of  the  fur- 
row, and  a  dry  subsoil  brought  to  the  surface  from  a  con- 
siderable depth.  The  crops  failed  entirely,  and  there  ap- 
peared two  very  obvious  reasons  for  the  failure  ;  first,  the 
subsoil  brought  to  the  surface  to  form  the  seed  bed  had  long 
been  deprived  of  the  ordinary  influence  of  the  atmosphere 
and  the  rains ;  consequently  must  have  been  cold  and  in- 
fertile. Secondly,  the  dry  tenacious  sward  having  been 
placed  half  broken  under  the  seed  bed,  the  natural  moisture 
of  the  ground,  as  well  as  that  which  falls  in  rain,  was  spee- 
dily and  habitually  evaporated.  Unless  in  a  season  of  un- 
common moisture,  a  crop  under  such  preparation  could  not 
prosper.' 

A  writer  in  the  General  Report  of  Scotland,  Mr.  James 


284  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

Brownhlll,  says  '  Old  leas,  [grass  grounds,]  in  my  opinion, 
should  be  ploughed  if  possible  not  above  four  and  a  half 
inches  deep  by  eight  and  a  half  or  nine  inches  broad.  If  the 
old  lea  be  a  Jry  soil,  it  will  plough  very  well  with  those 
dimensions  ;  if  it  be  ploughed  deeper  it  must  also  be  ploughed 
broader,  as  the  furrows  will  not  ply  close  to  one  another, 
unless  you  have  breadth  in  proportion  to  the  depth.' 

Sir  John  Sinclair  speaks  highly  of  the  advantages  of  deep 
ploughing  in  some  circumstances  and  for  some  crops,  but  says 
'  it  is  a  general  rule  never  to  plough  so  deep  as  to  penetrate 
below  the  soil  that  was  formerly  manured  and  cultivated 
excepting  upon  fallow,  and  then  only  wdien  you  have  plenty 
of  lime  or  dung  to  add  to  and  improve  the  new  soil.'  The 
farmers  of  Flanders,  which  is  said  to  be  the  best  cultivated 
part  of  Europe,  gradually  deepen  their  soil  by  ploughing  or 
digging  up  iresh  earth  as  their  manure  increases.  Mr. 
Arthur  Young  likewise  observes  that  in  poor  hungry  soils 
some  proportion  ought  to  be  observed  between  the  depth  of 
a  ploughing  and  the  quantit}^  of  manure  annually  spread. 
The  same  uTiter  informs  us  that  the  depth  of  ploughing  in 
various  towns  of  England,  on  an  average,  in  sandy  soils,  was 
four  inches ;  in  loamy  soils  four  and  three  quarters,  and  in 
clayey  soils  three  inches  and  a  half. 

Disputes  have  arisen  among  farmers  in  this  country  and 
in  Europe  relative  to  the  best  manner  of  laying  the  furrow 
slice.  Some  contend  for  turning  the  furrow  slice  completely 
over,  and  laying  it  quite  flat ;  but  others  allege  that  it  is 
most  advantageous  to  place  each  slice  in  such  a  manner  that 
its  outer  edge  may  extend  a  little  over  the  inner  edge  of  the 
furrow  which  was  drawn  next  before  it.  '  In  several  dis- 
tricts in  England  it  is  usual  to  lay  the  furrow  slice  quite  flat, 
and  this  is  particularly  the  case  where  there  are  no  ridges; 
but  in  Northumberland,  and  in  Scotland,  a  contrary  system 
is  adopted.  It  is  founded  on  thic  idea,  that  as  two  of  the 
principal  objects  in  ploughing  are,  to  expose  as  much  as  pos- 
sible to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  and  to  lay  the  land, 
so  that  the  harrows  may,  in  the  most  effectual  manner,  raise 
mould  to  cover  the  seed ;  these  objects  are  most  effectually 
accomplished  by  ploughing  land  of  every  description  with  a 
furrow  slice  about  seven  inches  deep,  and  which,  if  about 
ten  inches  and  a  half  broad,  raises  the  furrow  slice,  with  a 
proper  shoulder,  forminor  the  angle  forty-five,  the  point  which 
ought  to  be  referred  to  when  determining  between  the  merits 
of  different  specimens  of  ploughing.     For  that  purpose,  the 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  285 

depth  of  the  furrow  should,  in  general,  bear  a  due  propor- 
tion to  the  breadth,  that  is,  about  two-thirds,  or  as  six  inches 
deep  is  to  nine  broid.  This  is  the  general,  if  not  the  univer- 
versal  opinion  of  the  Scotch  farmers."^  The  angle  forty-five 
is  strongly  recommended  in  Bayley's  Essay  on  the  Construc- 
tion of  the  Plough,  in  his  Durham  Report,  and  in  Brown's 
Treatise  on  Rural  Affairs.  In  the  southern  counties  of 
England,  however,  they  generally  prefer  to  turn  the  furrow 
quite  flat,  or  horizontal ;  and  allege  as  a  reason  for  that  prac- 
tice that  the  weeds,  grass,  &c.  ploughed  under  cannot  well 
be  smothered  or  withered  unless  the  roots  are  turned  com- 
pletely bottom  upwards,  and  the  turf  covered  so  closely  as  to 
have  no  communication  with  the  atmosphere. 

In  Flanders,  land  is  frequently  cultivated  by  an  implement 
called  the  hinot,  which  is  highly  esteemed.  By  this  instru- 
ment the  land  is  not  turned  over,  as  by  the  plough,  and  the 
weeds  buried ;  but  the  soil  is  elevated  and  pressed  into  small 
ridges,  and  thus  is  better  exposed  to  the  beneficial  influence 
of  the  winter  frosts,  and  becomes  much  sooner  dry  in  spring 
than  when  the  land  is  turned  over  perfectly  flat.  When  fur- 
rovv""  slices  are  set  up  edgewise  by  a  plough,  they  become 
small  thin  ridges,  are  more  easily  pervaded  by  frost,  and  are 
in  a  situation  to  attract  more  of  the  fertilizing  influences  of 
the  atmosphere,  than  when  they  are  turned  over  so  as  to  lie 
in  a  horizontal  position.  Perhaps  this  mode  of  ploughing 
land  may  be  advantageous  in  stiff,  hard  soils,  where  several 
ploughings  are  necessary  to  prepare  for  the  reception  of  the 
seed.  If  land  of  this  description  is  broken  up  in  the  fall  or 
summer  preceding  the  sowing  or  plantin^f  of  the  seed,  and 
cross  ploughing  in  the  spring  is  made  use  of,  preparatory  to 
putting  in  the  seed,  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  the  '  feather 
edged  ploughing,'  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  (in  which  the 
furrow  slices  are  not  laid  so  flat  as  to  exclude  the  air  from 
between  and  from  the  lower  part  of  the  furrow  slices,)  is  to 
be  preferred.  '  Ploughing  previous  to  winter  setting  in  is  of 
great  use  to  clays,  or  stiff  lands,  exposing  the  surface  to  the 
frost,  which  mellows  and  reduces  it  in  a  manner  infinitely 
superior  to  what  could  be  accomplished  by  all  the  operations 
of  man. 't  If,  then,  exposing  the  surface  of  stiff  soils  to  the 
frost  is  of  great  advantage,  the  more  surface  there  is  exposed 

*  Code  of  Agriculture. 

t  See  Husbandry  of  Scotland,  vol.  i.  p.  229,  and  vol.  xi,  Appendix, 
p,  26. 


286  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

the  greater  the  advantage ;  and  if  the  furrow  slices  are  set 
partly  or  entirely  on  their  edges  there  will  be,  as  before  in- 
timated, more  surface  exposed  than  there  would  be  if  they 
were  laid  perfectly  flat.  And  if  they  were  turned  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  form  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  the  outer 
edge  of  the  furrow  resting  on  the  inner  edge  of  that  which 
immediately  preceded  it,  there  would  be  but  little  chance  for 
the  weeds  or  grass  to  grow  up  between  the  furrows,  which 
may  be  the  case  when  the  slices  are  set  perpendicularly,  or 
nearly  so,  on  their  edges.  There  will  likewise  always  be  a 
cavity  under  the  edges  of  the  furrow  slices,  containing  stag- 
nant and  sometimes  putrescent  air,  which  will  enrich  the 
soil.  Moreover  if  ridge-ploughing  is  at  all  advantageous,  we 
cannot  see  why  a  mode  of  ploughing  which  makes  a  ridge 
of  every  furrow  slice,  or  at  most  a  ridge  by  turning  the  edge 
of  one  furrow  slice  on  the  edge  of  its  immediate  predecessor, 
should  not  be  likewise  of  advantage.  Besides,  by  these 
modes  of  ploughing  you  form  a  covered  or  open  drain  or 
hollow  place  between  the  furrows,  which,  by  carrying  off 
superfluous  water,  will  render  the  soil  fit  for  tillage  earlier  in 
the  spring  than  would  be  possible  if  every  furrow  slice  was 
laid  flit  as  it  was  turned  upside  down.  The  harrow  will 
also  more  readily  take  hold  of  a  soil  where  the  furrow  slices 
form  little  ridges  or  protuberances,  and  thus  a  proper  mould 
will  be  procured  for  the  covering  of  the  seeds,  or  earthing  up 
plants  in  a  growing  crop.  And  if  there  is  danger  of  the  lands 
lying  too  loose  and  hollow,  repeated  harrowing,  and  rolling 
it  with  a  heavy  roller  after  sowing,  will  furnish  a  remedy. 

Dry  sandy  soils,  such  as  ought  not  to  be  ploughed  in 
ridges,  should  be  turned  over  completely,  and  be  laid  and 
kept  level  as  possible.  Such  soils,  if  rendered  loose,  and 
laid  light  by  cultiv^ation,  will  be  robbed  of  their  fertilizing 
particles  as  well  by  rain  as  by  sunshine.  In  other  words, 
they  are  liable  to  suffer  by  washing,  by  scorching,  and  by 
too  much  draining.  They  do  not  need  to  be  made  any 
lighter,  by  '  feather  edged  ploughinor,'  or  setting  the  furrow 
slices  edgewise,  being  too  light  under  ordinary  cultivation. 
It  is  therefore  '  a  great  advantage  to  such  soils  to  fold  sheep, 
or  to  consume  the  crops  of  turnips  upon  the  ground  where 
they  ere  raised.  These  practices  greatly  contribute  to  the 
improvement  of  such  soils,  not  only  by  the  dung  and  urine 
thus  deposited,  but  by  the  consolidation  and  firmness  of  tex- 
ture which  the  treading  of  sheep  occasions. '"^ 

*Code  of  Agriculture. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  287 

On  the  whole,  although  it  Avould  not  be  possible  to  give 
general  rules  nut  liable  to  many  exceptions,  on  tlie  shape  and 
position  of  the  furrow  slice,  which  should  be  cut  and  dis- 
posed of  acc(,rding  to  the  views  of  the  cultivator,  the  nature 
of  the  ground,  tlie  proposed  crop,  &c.,  we  are  inclined  to 
believe  that  Sir  John  Sinclair's  nnaxim  will  appV  to  most  of 
our  New  England  uplands.  That  eminent  agriculturist 
says  that  '  the  point  which  ought  to  be  referred  to,  w  hen 
determining  between  the  merits  of  different  specimens  of 
ploughing,  is  the  angle  of  forty-five  degrees.'  That  is,  other 
things  being  equal,  the  nearer  the  furrow  slice  comes  to 
forming  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  with  the  horizon,  the 
more  perfect  the  specimen  of  ploughing.  But  another  maxim 
of  the  same  writer  is  equally  worthy  of  attention.  '  Dry 
soils  being  deHcient  in  moisture  02tght  to  he  tilled  fiat,  as  any 
sort  of  drainings  which  the  furrows  might  afford  would  be  pre- 
judicial rather  than  advantageous.  In  Kent,  dry  land  is  left 
as  level  as  if  it  were  dug  with  a  spade.  The  moisture  is  thus 
equally  diffused  and  retained  under  the  surface  of  the  earth.' 

The  following  is  extracted  and  abridged  from  an  address 
delivered  before  the  Middlesex  Society  of  Husbandmen  and 
Manufacturers  ;  by  Elias  Phinney,  Esq. 

'  In  May,  1329,  the  field  having  lain  three  years  to  grass, 
and  the  crop  of  hay  so  light  as  to  be  worth  not  more  than 
the  expense  of  making,  with  a  view  of  ascertaining  the  quan- 
tity of  vegetable  matter  upon  the  surface,  I  took  a  single 
foot  square  of  g'-een  sward,  and  after  separating  the  roots  and 
tops  of  the  grasses  from  the  loam  and  vegetable  mould,  it 
was  found  on  weighing  to  contain  nine  ounces  of  clear  vege- 
table substance,  giving,  at  that  rate,  over  twelve  and  a  quar- 
ter tons  to  the  acre.  This  convinced  me  of  the  importance 
of  taking  some  course  by  which  this  valuable  treasure  might 
be  turned  to  good  account.  That  a  great  part  of  this  mass 
of  vegetable  matter  is  exposed  to  useless  vv^aste,  by  the  usual 
mode  of  ploughing,  cross  ploughing  and  harrowing,  must  be 
obvious  to  any  one.  In  order  therefore  to  secure  this,  as 
well  as  the  light  vegetable  mould  at  and  near  the  surface, 
which  is  liable  to  waste  from  the  same  causes,  I  had  two 
acres  of  the  green  sward  of  this  field  turned  over  with  the 
piough,  as  smoothly  as  possible.  After  removing  the  out- 
side furrow  slices  into  the  centre  of  the  plough  land,  and 
thereby  effecting  the  double  purpose  of  covering  the  vacant 
space  in  the  middle  and  preventing  ridges  at  the  sides  and 
ends,  the  field  was  rolled  hard,  with  a  loaded  roller,  by 
which  the  uneven  parts  of  the  furrow  were  pressed  down 


288  THE   COMPLETE    FARMER 

and  the  whole  made  smooth.  It  was  then  harrowed  }eng;th- 
wise  the  furrows,  with  a  horse  harrow,,  but  so  lightly  as  not 
to  disturb  the  sod.  Twenty  cart-loads  of  compost  manure, 
made  by  mixing  two  parts  of  loam  or  peat  mud  with  one  of 
stable  dung,  were  then  spread  upon  each  acre.  It  was  then 
harrowed  again,  as  before,  and  the  poorer  part  of  t^.e  soil, 
which  had  been  turned  up,  and  remained  upon  the  suiface, 
was  thereby  mixed  with  the  compost  manure.  Corn  was 
then  planted  in  drills  upon  the  furrow,  the  rows  being  at  the 
usual  distance  and  parallel  with  the  furrows.  At  hoeing 
time,  the  surface  was  stirred  by  running  a  light  plough  be- 
tween the  rows,  but  not  so  deep  at  this  or  the  subsequent 
hoeing  as  to  disturb  the  sod.  What  Mr.  Lorrain  calls  the 
'  savage  practice'  of  hilling  up  the  corn  was  cautiously 
avoided.  As  the  season  advanced,  I  carefully  watched  the 
progress  of  my  corn-field.  In  the  early  part  of  the  season  it 
did  not  exhibit  a  very  promising  appearance ;  but  as  soon  as 
the  roots  had  extended  into  the  enriching  matter  beneath, 
and  began  to  expand  in  the  decomposing  sward,  which  had 
now  become  mellow,  and  more  minutely  divided  by  the  fer- 
mentation of  the  confined  vegetable  substances  beneath  than 
it  possibly  could  have  been  by  plough  or  hoe,  the  growth 
became  vigorous,  and  the  crop,  in  the  opinion  of  those  who 
examined  the  field,  not  less  than  seventy  bushels  of  corn  to 
the  acre.  As  soon  as  the  corn  was  harvested,  the  stubble 
was  loosened  up  by  running  a  light  horse  plough  lengthwise 
through  the  rows,  the  surface  then  smoothed  with  a  bush- 
harrow,  and  one  bushel  of  rye,  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
herd's  grass  and  red  top  seed,  to  the  acre  was  then  sowed, 
the  ground  again  harrowed  and  rolled.  The  crop  of  rye 
was  harvested  in  July  following,  and  the  two  acres  yielded 
sixty-nine  and  a  half  bushels  of  excellent  grain,  and  over  five 
tons  of  straw.  The  grass  sowed  with  the  rye  took  well,  and 
the  present  season  I  mowed,  what  those  who  secured  the 
crop  judged  to  be,  two  and  a  half  tons  of  the  very  best  of 
hay  from  each  acre. 

'  Thus,  with  one  ploughing,  with  the  aid  of  twenty  cart- 
loads of  compost  manure  to  the  acre,  I  have  obtained  two 
crops  of  grain,  and  stocked  the  land  down  to  grass.' 


HAY  MAKING.     It  is  a  matter  of  much  importance  to 
the  husbandman  that  he  should  take  time  by  the  foretop 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  289 

durino"  the  season  for  making  hay.  He  must  drive  his  busi- 
ness instead  of  being  driven  by  it.  Indolence  or  improper 
management  in  hay-time  will  soon  give  a  sorry  complexion 
to  a  farmer's  affiiirs.  A  day  or  two  lost  or  misemployed 
while  the  sun  shines,  and  your  grass  suffers  for  lack  of  the 
scythe  and  the  rake,  or  your  grain  is  going  back  into  the 
ground,  while  the  sickle  is  rusting  on  a  peg  behind  the  door, 
and  its  owner  is  asleep  or  gone  a  journey,  may  be  the  means 
of  introducing  Mr.  Deputy  Sheriff  on  your  premises,  who 
may  do  more  harm  than  a  crop  of  thistles  or  a  host  of  Hes- 
sian flies. 

It  is  best,  generally  speaking,  to  cut  your  very  heaviest 
grass  first  of  all,  and  if  it  be  lodged,  or  in  danger  of  lodging, 
or  the  lower  leaves  and  bottom  of  the  stalks  are  beginning 
to  turn  yellow,  although  the  grass  is  hardly  headed,  and  ap- 
pears not  to  have  obtained  more  than  two-thirds  of  its  growth, 
you  had  better  begin  upon  it.  But  when  you  have  help 
enough,  and  your  grass  stands  up  well,  you  will  do  best  to 
wait  till  the  blossom  is  fully  formed,  and  is  beginning  to 
turn  brown.  Clover  is  the  most  critical  grass,  and  requires 
the  most  attention.  '  In  all  cases,'  says  Sir  John  Sinclair, 
'  clover  ought  to  be  mown  before  the  seed  is  formed''^  that  the 
full  juice  and  nourishment  of  the  plants  may  be  retained  in 
the  hay.  By  the  adoption  of  this  system  the  hay  is  cut  in 
a  better  season,  it  can  be  more  easily  secured,  and  is  m'lch 
more  valuable.  Nor  is  the  strength  of  the  plant  lodged  in 
the  seed,  which  is  often  lost. 

'  After  being  cut,  the  clover  should  remain  in  the  swath 
till  it  is  dried  about  two-thirds  of  its  thickness.  It  is  then 
not  tedded  or  strewed,  but  turned  over,  either  by  the  hands, 
or  the  heads  of  hay  rakes.  If  turned  over  in  the  morning 
of  a  dry  day,  it  may  be  cocked  in  the  evening.     The  hay  is 

*  It  may  not  be  amiss,  however,  to  state  in  this  place,  that  agricultu- 
rists do  not  altogether  agree  on  this  point.  In  '  Memoirs  of  the  New 
york  Board  of  Agriculture,'  vol.  ii.  p.  30,  it  is  asserted  that  '  all  the 
grasses  are  more  nutritions  if  not  mowed  until  the  seed  is  fully  grown. 
It  should  not  be  entirely  ripened,  however.'  The  Farmer's  Assistant 
tells  us  that  'the  best  time  for  cutting  herd's  grass,  [timothy]  where  hut 
one  crop  is  cut  in  the  season,  is  when  the  seeds  of  the  grass  are  fully 
formed,  but  before  they  have  become  fully  ripe ;  but  as  farmers  cannot 
all  cut  their  hay  in  a  day  or  two,  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  begin 
before  this  time,  that  they  may  not  end  too  long  after  it.  The  same  time 
is  al^^o  proper  for  cutting  clover ;  or  rather  when  a  part  of  the  heads  be- 
gin to  turn  brown.  Foul  meadow  or  birdgrass  may  be  cut  much  later, 
without  being  hurt  by  long  standing.' 
25 


290  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

as  little  shaken  or  scattered  about  afterwards  as  possible ; 
and  if  the  weather  is  good,  after  remaining  two  or  tliree 
days  in  the  cock,  it  may  be  carted  into  the  stack.' 

It  is  asserted  by  the  '  Farmer's  Guide,'  that  '  grass  will 
not  thrive  well  that  is  not  mown  quite  close ;  and  the  loss 
in  the  crop  where  this  is  not  done  is  very  considerable,  as 
one  inch  at  the  bottom  iveighs  more  than  several  at  the  top.'' 

The  fore  part  of  the  season  for  making  hay  is,  we  believe, 
usually  attended  with  less  rain  than  the  latter  part.  The 
days,  too,  are  longer,  and  the  dews  are  less  copious.  Far- 
mers will,  therefore,  find  additional  motives  from  these  cir- 
cumstances to  industry  and  exertion  in  early  hay-time.  Be- 
sides, if  haying  is  protracted  till  harvest  commences,  the 
business  of  one  season  presses  on  that  of  another,  and  some 
crops  will  be  nearly  or  quite  spoiled  in  consequence  of  not 
being  gathered  in  due  time.  The  forehanded  and  industri- 
ous farmer  thus  possesses  great  advantages  over  one  whom 
indolence  or  poverty  induces  to  procrastinate  the  indispensa- 
ble labors  of  his  vocation. 

Great  advantages  would  result  to  the  farmer,  particularly 
in  haying  and  harvesting,  if  he  could  form  an  estimate  of  the 
weather  so  as  to  be  able  to  foresee  with  tolerable  accuracy 
what  would  be  its  state  for  a  few  days,  or  even  for  twenty- 
four  hours  subsequent  to  the  period  of  observation.  Dr. 
Jenner's  versified  statement  of '  Signs  of  Rain,'  (published  in 
the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  ii.  p.  288,)  may  prove  useful 
for  this  purpose,  and  the  rhymes  may  assist  the  memory.  A 
certain  French  philosopher,  some  years  since,  published  an 
article,  in  which  he  asserted,  in  substance,  that  the  web  of  a 
common  spider  is  a  sure  index  of  the  state  of  the  air  for 
twelve  or  fourteen  days  to  come.  If  the  weather  is  to  be 
fair  and  calm,  the  principal  thread  will  be  spun  to  a  great 
length  ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  the  weather  is  to  be  stormy  and 
boisterous,  the  thread  will  be  short  and  thick  ;  and  if  the  spi- 
der is  seen  to  repair  the  damages  its  slender  thread  may  sus- 
tain, you  may  anticipate  pleasant  weather  for  many  days. 
So  says  the  philosopher,  but  we  cannot  vouch  for  the  accu- 
racy of  his  saying.  It  may,  however,  not  be  amiss  for  the 
man  of  observation  to  pay  some  attention  to  this  subject,  for 
we  know  that  the  instinct  of  an  insect  is  often  more  to  be 
depended  on  than  the  researches  of  science. 

In  this  climate,  a  southerly  wind,  if  it  continues  steadfast 
for  forty-eight  hours,  is  generally  followed  by  rain.  If  the 
wind,  however,  shifts  its  course  with  the  sun,  or,  as  sailors 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  291 

phrase  it,  goes  round  with  the  sun,  in  the  morning  blowing 
from  the  south,  or  east  of  south,  and  changing  westerly  as 
the  sun  advances,  it  generally  indicates  dry  weather.  If  the 
wind  shifts  in  a  course  opposite  to  the  apparent  course  of 
the  sun,  rain  commonly  succeeds.  If  the  wind  continues 
southerly,  and  blows  briskly  through  the  night,  it  commonly, 
as  the  phrase  is,  '  blows  up  rain.'  This  effect  of  a  south 
wind  in  this  country  may  be  thus  accounted  for.  A  souther- 
ly wind  is  a  current  of  air  which  has  its  origin  in  warmer 
latitudes  than  those  in  which  we  are  situated.  This  current 
in  passing  over  the  ocean  imbibes  or  takes  up  as  much  water 
as  air  of  its  temperature  can  hold  in  solution.  Passing  into 
higher  or  colder  latitudes  the  air  of  the  current  parts  with  a 
portion  of  its  heat  or  caloric,  and  cannot  retain  so  much 
water  as  it  held  in  its  outset.  Clouds  or  vapors  are  there- 
fore formed,  and  the  excess  of  moisture  is  deposited  in  mist, 
rain,  hail,  or  snow,  according  to  circumstances,  the  season, 
&;c.  On  the  contrary  a  northerly  wind,  coming  from  a  com- 
paratively cold  latitude,  acquires  caloric  as  it  advances,  and 
with  that  acquisition  its  capacity  for  holding  water  in  so- 
lution is  increased.  Therefore  a  northerly  wind  is  a  drying 
wind,  and  its  predominance  soon  dissipates  clouds  and  intro- 
duces fair  weather. 

But  to  come  down  from  the  clouds  to  matters  more  within 
the  reach  of  the  reader.  It  has  been  often  recommended  by 
writers  on  agriculture  to  cart  hay,  particularly  clover,  before 
the  stalks  are  dry,  and  either  to  put  it  up  with  alternate 
layers  of  straw,  or  to  salt  it  at  the  rate  of  from  half  to  one 
bushel  of  salt  to  the  ton. 

'  Salt  hay  in  this  country  has  usually  been  hurt  by  lying 
too  long  in  the  swaths.  The  method  in  which  I  have  treated 
it  for  several  years,  is,  to  cock  it  the  next  day  after  it  is  cut, 
and  carry  it  in,  without  delaying  more  than  one  day,  and 
put  a  layer  of  some  kind  of  dry  straw  between  load  and  load 
of  it  in  the  mow,  to  prevent  its  taking  damage  by  over-heating. 
The  straw  contracts  so  much  of  its  moisture  and  saltness, 
that  the  cattle  will  eat  it  very  freely  ;  and  the  hay  is  far 
better  than  that  made  in  the  common  way."^ 

The  making  of  herbage  plants  [such  as  clover,  lucerne, 
sainfoin  burnet,  &c.]  into  hay,  is  a  process  somewhat  diffe- 
rent from  that  of  making  hay  from  natural  grasses.  As 
soon  as  the  swath  is  thoroughly  dry  above,  it  is  gently  turn- 

*  Deane's  New  England  Farmer. 


292  THE    COMPLETE    FTiRMER 

ed  over  (not  tedded  nor  scattered)  without  breaking  it. 
Sonietim3s  this  is  done  by  the  hand,  or  by  a  smill  fork; 
and  some  farmers  are  so  anxious  to  prevent  the  swath  from 
being  broken,  that  they  will  not  permit  the  use  of  the  rake 
shaft.  Another  writer  observes,  that  the  practice  of  the  best 
English,  Flemish,  and  French  farmers,  is  .,0  expose  the  hay 
as  little  as  possible  to  the  sun.  It  is  carried  in  dry,  but  pre- 
serves its  green  color ;  and  we  see  hay  of  one  or  two  years 
old  in  their  market,  of  so  bright  a  green  color  that  we  could 
scarcely  conceive  it  to  be  cured.  Yet  they  are  in  the  prac- 
tice of  preserving  it  for  years,  and  value  it  more  for  its  age. 
If  such  a  course  be  best  in  climates  so  cool  and  cloudy, 
how  much  more  important  would  it  be  under  our  scorching 
summer  suns. 

'But  if  the  weather  be  unsettled,  or  if  showers  be  frequent, 
it  may  be  better  to  spread  grass  well  as  soon  as  it  is  mowed, 
stir  it  often,  cock  it  the  same  day  it  is  mowed ;  open  it  the 
next  fair  day,  when  the  dew  is  off;  let  it  sweat  a  little  in  the 
cock,  and  house  it  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  enough.  It  will  bear 
to  be  laid  greener  on  a  scaffold  than  in  a  ground  mow  ;  and 
in  a  narrow  mow  greener  than  in  a  broad  one ;  and  that 
which  is  least  of  all  made  should  be  put  upon  the  scaffold.* 
— Deajie. 

Sir  John  Sinclair  is  very  explicit  on  the  subject  of  '  mak- 
ing clover  into  hay.'  '  The  process,'  he  observes,  '  is  quite 
different  from  the  plan  of  making  hay  from  natural  grasses. 
Mr.  Lorrain  gives  us  both  sides  of  this  question.  He  says, 
'  I  did  not  like  to  abandon  the  practice  of  curing  hay  in  the 
swath,  having  observed  that  it  saved  labor.  The  grasses  are 
at  all  times  very  expeditiously  turned  in  the  swath.  If  con- 
tinued rains  occur,  the  swaths  are  not  only  quickly  turned, 
but  if  the  sun  shines  powerfully  between  the  showers,  the 
inside  of  them  is  not  parched  by  its  rays.  By  turning  the 
swaths  throughout  long  continued  rain,  as  often  as  the  un- 
der side  of  them  was  likely  to  be  injured  by  fermentation,  I 
have  saved  extensive  fields  of  hay ;  while  my  neighbors, 
who  gave  no  attention  to  this  interesting  subject,  had  their 
crops  entirely  ruined.  If  the  grasses,  however,  be  raked  up 
into  small  winrows,  they  are  as  readily  turned,  and  may  be 
as  effectually  preserved  as  if  they  remained  in  swaths,  but  in 
this  case  the  labor  is  greater.' 

The  same  writer,  however,  in  the  next  paragraph,  takes 
other  ground.  '  Curing  hay,'  he  observes,  '  in  sw^ath,  to  save 
the  juices,  seems  to  be  not  only  practically  wrong,  but  also 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  293 

opposed  to  reason.  The  confined  heat  and  moisture  in  the 
interior  of  the  swath  promote  fermentation,  and  must  be 
more  or  less  injurious  to  the  nutritive  matter  contained  in 
the  glasses.  It  is  exactly  calculated  to  weaken  the  grasp  of 
the  leaves,  and  to  separate  them  from  the  stalk.  It  also 
greatly  weakens  their  general  texture  and  causes  them  to 
crumble  into  pieces  Avhen  they  become  dry.  While  this  is 
doing,  the  outside  surface  of  the  swath  is  scorched  by  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  and  becomes  but  little  better  than  straw, 
before  the  inside  is  moderately  cured.  In  raking,  cocking, 
heaping,  and  inning,  the  swaths  are  so  far  separated,  that 
many  of  the  leaves  are  lost  before  the  hay  gets  into  the 
mow  ;  but  few  of  them  get  into  the  rack.' 

We  have  thus  given  both  sides  of  the  controverted  ques- 
tion in  agriculture,  and  our  readers  will  take  that  which  ap- 
pears to  them  most  tenable.  We  confess  ourselves  rather 
inclined  to  embrace  the  opinions  of  a  correspondent  who 
says,  '  If  it  be  correct  to  "  make  hay  while  the  sun  shines,"  it 
may  be  well  to  make  it  as  quickly  as  possible ;  but  in  this, 
as  in  many  other  processes,  circumstances  Vlter  cases." 


HARVESTING.  It  is  asserted,  as  a  general  rule,  that 
the  proper  time  to  reap  wheat  or  rye  is  when  the  straw  be- 
gins to  shrink  and  become  white  about  half  an  inch  beloAV 
the  ear.  This  appearance  is  a  sure  indication  that  the  grain 
has  ceased  to  receive  nourishment  from  the  roots  of  the 
plant ;  and  by  cutting  early,  provided  it  is  not  taken  to  the 
barn  or  stack  too  green,  the  following  advantages  will  be 
gained :  1st.  The  grain  will  make  more  and  whiter  flour. 
2d.  There  will  be  less  wasted  by  the  grain's  shelling.  3d. 
By  commencing  harvest  early,  you  will  have  a  fairer  pros- 
pect of  finishing  before  the  last  cuttings  become  too  ripe,  so 
that  much  of  the  grain  wdll  shell  out  in  reaping  and  securing 
the  crop.  4th.  If  you  cut  your  grain  as  soon  as  it  will  an- 
swer, your  straw  and  chaff  will  contain  much  more  nourish- 
ment than  if  it  were  bleached  and  made  brittle  by  the  sun, 
air,  dew,  and  rain,  all  of  which  combine  to  deprive  it  of  most 
of  its  value  for  fodder.  5th.  Should  you  plough  in  your 
stubble  immediately  after  harvest,  or  mow  it  and  secure  it 
for  fodder  or  litter,  (either  of  which  modes  of  management 
is  perfectly  consonant  with  the  rules  of  good  husbandry,) 
the  stubble  will  make  much  better  food  for  your  cattle  or  ma- 
25=^ 


294  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

nure  for  your  ground,  than  if  it  had  yielded  all  its  sweets 
and  much  of  its  substance  to  the  greedy  elements  above 
mentioned. 

If  your  wheat  or  rye  is  much  affected  by  blight  or  rust,  it 
should  be  cut  even  while  still  in  the  milk,  and  afterwards 
exposed  to  the  sun  and  air,  till  the  straw  is  sufficiently  dry 
and  the  grain  so  much  hardened  that  it  will  answer  to  de- 
posit in  the  barn  or  stack.  The  heads,  in  such  cases,  should 
be  so  placed  by  the  reapers  as  not  to  touch  the  ground.  This 
may  be  done  by  laying  the  top  ends  of  each  handful  on  the 
lower  end  of  the  preceding  one. 

If  your  grain  is  encumbered  with  grass  or  weeds,  you  must 
cut  it  pretty  near  the  top,  in  order  to  avoid  as  much  as  pos- 
sible those  extraneous  substances.  It  will  also  be  necessary 
to  reap  somewhat  earlier  than  might  be  otherwise  expedient, 
that  you  may  have  time  to  dry  the  weeds  without  danger  of 
the  grain's  shelling  out.  If  your  grain  is  very  ripe  when 
you  harvest  it,  the  bands  should  be  made  early  in  the  morn- 
ing while  the  straw  is  muist  and  pliable.  And  Dr.  Deane 
recommends,  in  such  cases,  to  bind  the  sheaves  when  the  air 
begins  to  be  damp  towards  evening,  as  the  least  degree  of 
moisture  will  toughen  the  straw. 

It  has  been  recommended  by  several  English  writers  to 
bind  wheat  as  well  as  rye  with  only  one  length  of  the  straw. 
If  the  straw  is  pretty  long,  and  not  very  thoroughly  dry,  this 
may  be  good  economy.  You  save  the  trouble  of  making 
bands  ;  your  wheat  will  dry  better  in  the  sheaf;  (as  the 
sheaves  must  of  course  be  small;)  and  though  it  may  take 
some  more  time  md  trouble  to  pitch  and  handle  it,  we  believe 
the  advantages,  in  many  cases,  will  turn  the  scale  in  favor 
of  binding  wheat  with  single  lengths  of  straw. 

In  stowing  wheat  or  rye,  some  persons  deposit  the  sheaves 
on  a  mow  of  hay  ;  but  this  is  a  bad  plan,  as  the  grain  presses 
the  hay  so  that  it  is  apt  to  become  musty,  and  communicate 
a  musty  or  mouldy  taint  to  the  superincumbent  grain ; 
which  will  be  harder  to  thresh  than  if  it  had  a  more  dry  and 
airy  location.  It  may  be  placed  on  a  scaffold  of  rails,  laid 
on  the  beams,  and  over  the  floor  of  a  barn  ;  though  it  is  not 
so  easy  to  procure  it  for  threshing  as  if  it  were  laid  on  a 
scaffold  of  less  elevation.  But  this  disadvantage  may  be 
more  than  compensated  by  its  being  in  a  situation  favorable 
for  drying.  If  there  is  a  deficiency  of  barn  room,  the  sheaves 
may  be  stored  in  stacks.  In  that  case,  '  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  grain  may  not  draw  moisture  from  the  ground,  by 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  295 

laying  boards,  straw,  or  rubbish  under  the  stack.  A  better 
way  still  is  to  have  a  tight  jfloor  of  boards  mounted  on  four 
blocks,  set  in  the  ground,  and  so  high  from  the  ground  as  to 
prevent  the  entering  of  vermin. 

'  In  building  a  stack,  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the 
seed  ends  of  the  sheaves  in  the  middle,  and  a  little  higher 
than  the  outer  ends.  No  fowls  can  then  come  at  the  grain ; 
and  the  rain  that  falls  on  the  outer  ends  will  run  off,  and  not 
pass  towards  the  centre.  The  stack  should  be  well  topped 
with  straw,  that  the  rain  may  be  completely  turned  off.' 

Oafs.  It  is  advised  to  harvest  oats  before  the  straw  has 
wholly  turned  yellow.  The  straw  will  be  of  little  value  if 
permitted  to  stand  till  it  becomes  white  and  destitute  of  sap. 
Though  oats  should  be  well  dried  on  the  ground,  after  cut- 
ting, they  should  not  be  raked  nor  handled  when  they  are  in 
the  driest  state.  They  should  be  gathered  mornings  and 
evenings,  when  the  straw  is  made  limber  and  pliable  by  the 
moisture  of  the  air.  If  they  are  housed  while  a  little  damp, 
there  will  be  no  danger  if  they  have  been  previously  tho- 
roughly dried. 

Barley.  We  are  told  by  the  wise  men  of  agriculture, 
that  some  of  the  rules  which  should  be  observed  in  harvest- 
ing wheat,  rye,  and  oats,  will  not  apply  to  barley.  Willich's 
Domestic  Encyclopedia  states,  that,  '  with  respect  to  the 
time  when  barley  is  fit  to  be  mowed,  farmers  frequently  fall 
into  the  error  of  cutting  it  before  it  is  perfectly  ripe  ;  think- 
ing it  will  attain  to  perfect  maturity  if  it  lie  in  the  swath. 
This,  however,  is  a  very  common  error,  as  it  will  shrivel  in 
the  field,  and  afterwards  make  but  an  indifferent  malt  ;  it 
also  threshes  with  more  difficulty,  and  is  apt  to  be  bruised 
under  the  flail.  The  only  certain  test  of  judging  when  it  is 
fit  to  mow  must  be  from  the  dropping  and  falling  of  the  ears, 
so  as  to  double  against  the  straw.  In  that  state,  and  not 
before,  it  may  be  cut  with  all  expedition,  and  carried  in  with- 
out danger  to  the  mow. 

Dr.  Deane's  New  England  Farmer  states,  that  '  some 
have  got  an  opinion  that  barley  should  be  harvested  before 
it  is  quite  ripe.  Though  the  flour  may  be  a  little  whiter, 
the  grain  shrinks  so  much  that  the  crop  seems  greatly  dimi- 
nished and  wasted  by  early  cutting.  No  grain,  I  think,  re- 
quires more  ripening  than  this ;  and  it  is  not  apt  to  scatter 
out  when  it  is  very  ripe.  It  rhould  be  threshed  soon  after 
harvesting  ;  and  much  beating,  after  it  is  cleared  from  the 
straw,  is  necessary  in  order  to  get  off  the  beards.     Let  it  lie 


296  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

a  night  or  two  in  the  dew,  after  it  is  cut,  and  the  beards  will 
come  oft^the  more  easily. 


DRAINS  used  in  farming  are  of  two  kinds,  open  and 
covered.  Drains  should  be  of  a  size  and  depth  proportioned 
to  the  extent  of  the  swamp  and  the  probable  quantity  of 
water  for  which  they  are  designed  to  be  channels.  They 
should  generally  be  carried  through  the  lowest  and  wettest 
part  of  the  soil,  although  it  should  be  necessary,  iii  order  to 
effect  that  purpose,  to  deviate  from  straight  lines.  Open 
drains  sometimes  answer  the  double  purpose  of  conveying  off 
superfluous  water  and  of  inclosing  fields ;  but  they  make  a 
hazardous  and  inconvenient  fence  without  the  addition  of  a 
bank,  hedge,  or  railing.  The  Farmer's  Assistant  says, 
*  When  a  ditch  is  made  for  a  fence,  it  ought  to  be  four  feet 
wide  at  the  top,  one  or  less  at  the  bottom,  and  about  two 
and  a  half  deep  ;  with  the  earth  all  thrown  out  on  one  side, 
and  banked  up  as  high  as  possible.'  Sir  John  Sinclair  states, 
that  '  it  is  a  general  rule  regarding  open  drains,  with  a  view 
of  giving  sufficient  slope  and  stability  to  their  sides,  that  the 
width  at  top  should  be  three  times  as  much  as  that  which  is 
necessary  at  the  bottom,  and  in  the  case  of  peat-mosses  or 
soft  soils,  it  should  be  such  as  to  allow  the  water  to  run  off 
without  stagnation,  but  not  with  so  rapid  a  motion  as  to 
injure  the  bottom.' 

But  before  you  attempt  to  drain  a  piece  of  land,  it  will  be 
well  not  only  to  calculate  the  cost,  but  to  ascertain  the  nature 
of  the  soil  which  it  is  proposed  to  render  fit  for  cultivation. 
If  the  subsoil  or  under  layer  be  clay,  the  swamp  may  be 
worth  draining,  though  there  should  be  no  more  than  six 
inches  of  black  soil  or  mud  over  it,  for  the  clay  and  the  mud 
mixed  will  make  a  fertile  soil.  But  if  the  subsoil  or  under 
stratum  be  gravel  or  white  sand,  it  will  not,  in  common  cases, 
be  best  to  undertake  draining,  unless  the  depth  of  black  mud 
be  as  much  as  from  fifteen  or  eighteen  inches  deep ;  for  the 
soil  will  settle  after  draining,  and  be  less  deep  than  it  was 
before.  But  the  situation  of  the  land  to  be  drained  may 
authorize  some  variation  from  these  general  rules. 

The  manner  of  draining  a  swamp  is  as  follows  :  Beginning 
at  the  outlet,  pass  a  large  ditch  through  it,  so  as  mostly  to 
cut  the  lowest  parts.  Then  make  another  ditch  quite  round 
it,  near  to  the  border,  to  cut  ofT  the  springs  which  come  from 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  297 

tKe  upland,  and  to  receive  the  water  that  runs  down  from 
the  hills  upon  the  surface  in  great  rains.  These  ditches 
should  be  larger  or  smaller,  in  some  proportion  to  the  size 
of  the  swamp,  the  shape  and  size  of  the  hills  which  surround 
it,  and  other  circumstances,  which  might  tend  to  greater  or 
less  quantities  of  water  being  occasionally  or  generally  led 
to  the  ditches.  If  the  swamp  be  large,  it  may  be  necessary 
that  some  smaller  cross  drains  should  be  cut  in  several  of  the 
lowest  parts.  The  bottom  of  the  main  ditches,  when  the 
soil  is  not  of  an  extraordinary  depth,  must  be  lower  than  the 
bottom  of  the  loose  soil ;  otherwise  the  soil  will  never  be- 
come sufficiently  dry  and  firm."^ 

It  is  said  by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  (Code  of  Agriculture,  page 
182,)  that  '  in  all  drains  it  is  a  rule  to  begin  at  the  lowest 
place  and  to  work  upwards,  by  which  the  water  will  always 
pass  from  the  workmen  and  point  out  the  level.  This  ena- 
bles the  laborers  also  to  work  in  coarse  weather,  and  prevents 
their  being  interrupted  by  wet  so  early  in  the  season  as 
otherwise  might  happen.' 

The  mud  and  other  materials  which  are  dug  out  of  a  ditch 
or  drain  should  not  be  suffered  to  lie  in  heaps  or  banks  by 
the  side  of  the  ditch,  but  should  be  spread  as  equally  as  pos- 
sible over  the  surface  of  the  drained  land.  In  this  way,  the 
matter  taken  from  the  ditches  will  tend  to  level  the  surface 
of  the  swamp,  will,  perhaps,  serve  in  some  measure  for  ma- 
nure, and  will  not  present  any  impediment  to  the  passage  of 
the  water  to  the  ditches.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  advisable 
to  transport  the  earth  which  is  taken  from  the  ditches  to 
the  farm-\^ard  or  the  hogpen,  to  form  a  part  of  that  layer 
which  good  farmers  generally  spread  over  those  places  in 
autumn,  to  imbibe  liquid  manure,  or  make  into  compost  with 
dung.  In  many  instances,  we  are  told,  that  the  earth  thus 
dug  out  of  ditches  is  thought  to  be  worth  enough  to  pay  for 
the  expense  of  digging  the  ditches. 

The  following  communication  on  the  subject  of  under- 
draining  is  from  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  x.  p.  97  : 

Under  draining.  In  a  late  number  of  the  New  England 
Farmer,  my  friend  judge  Buel,  in  an  article  on  '  underJrain- 
ing,'  was  pleased  to  speak  in  favorable  terms  of  my  practice 
in  this  species  of  improvement,  of  my  culture  in  general,  and 
to  ask  for  some  communication  on  the  subject.  As  no  one 
in  our  country  has   more  successfully  blended  theory  with 

*  See  Deane's  New  England  Farmer,  article  Drains 


298  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

practice  in  the  various  departments  of  husbandry  than  Mr. 
Bue],  I  appreciate  this  notice  from  one  so  competent  to  make 
improvements  and  so  happy  in  his  manner  of  detailing  them 
to  the  agricultural  community. 

As  regards  underdraining,  and  the  many  benefits  resulting 
from  it.  my  observation  and  experience  fully  corroborate  all 
judge  Buel  has  said  in  its  favor  ;  indeed,  without  this  saluta- 
ry and  simple  operation,  no  inconsiderable  proportion  of 
many  valuable  districts  of  our  country  must  continue  little 
better  than  waste.  It  is  generally  total  loss  of  labor  to  the 
farmer  who  attempts  to  cultivate  wet  lands  in  our  rigorous 
climate,  and  by  draining,  these  useless  inhospitable  acres 
have  been  found  of  the  kindliest  and  most  productive  cha- 
racter. 

Having  a  surplus  of  stones  on  my  estate  beyond  what 
fences  require,  I  use  the  smaller  and  ill-formed  for  drains ; 
they  have  the  advantage  of  brush  in  durability  and  of  tiles 
in  economy.  My  drains  are,  for  the  most  part,  three  feet  in 
depth,  two  feet  in  width  at  top,  sloping  to  one  at  bottom. 
The  bottom  stones  are  largest,  and  are  carefully  placed  to 
allow  the  water  to  flow  freely  beneath,  while  above  the  small 
stones  are  thrown  in  at  random,  so  that  when  levelled  they 
are  beneath  the  plough.  Over  these  swingle-tow,  shavings, 
or  straw,  may  be  thrown,  after  which  the  earth  can  be  re- 
placed by  the  spade  or  plough,  so  as  to  present  a  rather 
higher  surface  than  the  grounds  adjacent,  and  the  business 
is  accomplished.  It  is  very  essential  that  the  descent  be 
easy,  neither  too  quick  nor  too  slow,  and  that  all  surface 
loater  be  excluded,  as  it  would  speedily  choke  and  destroy 
the  underdraining.  I  estimate  the  average  cost  of  such 
drains  at  sixty-two  and  a  half  cents  the  rod.  It  should  ,be 
remarked,  that  underdraining  is  adapted  to  lands  presenting 
sufficient  declivity  to  carry  off  the  springs,  and  it  is  only  the 
under  water  that  is  meant  to  be  drained  in  this  manner, 
while  open  ditches  are  adapted  to  the  bottom  lands  for  the 
conveyance  of  surface  water.  I  will  state  what  appears  to 
me  the  prominent  advantages  that  the  cultivator  may  pro- 
mise himself  by  a  thorough  system  of  draining. 

In  the  first  place,  he  creates,  as  it  were,  so  much  addi- 
tional terra  firma,  and  adds  essentially  to  the  health  of  all 
around  him,  by  correcting  the  ill  tendencies  of  excessive 
moisture.  He  can  cultivate  reclaimed  lands  several  weeks 
earlier  and  as  much  later  in  each  year  than  those  that  are 
unreclaimed,  his  crops  are  better  and  more  sure.     The  labor 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  299 

of  after  tillage  is  much  diminished.  The  stones  that  impede 
the  plough  and  scythe  are  removed,  and  not  the  least  essen- 
tial benefit  is  the  constant  sujjplies  of  loater  which  may  be 
insured  in  any  field  inclining  to  moisture,  which,  with  refe- 
rence to  animals,  will,  as  a  permanent  convenience  and  ad- 
vantage, fully  compensate  the  expense  of  drains. 

I  have  just  put  down  a  field  of  wheat  which  has  required 
extensive  underdraining.  This  field  has  required  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  rods  of  stone  draining,  and  I  hope  to  be  remu- 
nerated the  whole  expense  in  the  surplus  crops  of  the  two 
next  years,  to  say  nothing  of  the  pleasure  of  witnessing  the 
fiinest  grains  and  kindliest  grasses  taking  the  place  of  bul- 
rushes and  wild  grass. 

I  am,  sir,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

Henry  W.  Delavan. 


PASTURE.  To  manage  pasture  land  advantageously,  it 
should  be  well  fenced  in  small  lots,  of  four,  eight,  or  twelve 
acres,  according  to  the  largeness  of  one's  farm  and  stock ; 
and  these  lots  should  be  bordered  at  least  with  xows  of  trees. 
It  is  best  that  trees  of  some  kind  or  other  should  be  growing 
scattered  in  every  point  of  a  pasture,  so  that  the  cattle  may 
never  have  to  go  far  in  a  hot  hour  to  obtain  a  comfortable 
shade.  The  grass  will  spring  earlier  in  lots  that  are  thus 
sheltered,  and  they  will  bear  drought  the  better.  But  too 
great  a  proportion  of  shade  should  be  avoided,  as  it  will  give 
a  sourness  to  the  grass. 

Small  lots  thus  sheltered  are  not  left  bare  of  snow  so  early 
in  the  spring  as  larger  ones  lying  bare,  as  fences  and  trees 
cause  more  of  it  to  remain  upon  the  ground.  The  cold 
winds  in  March  and  April  hurt  the  grass  much  when  the 
ground  is  bare.  And  the  winds  in  winter  will  not  suflfer 
snow  to  lie  deep  on  land  that  is  too  open  to  the  rake  of 
winds  and  storms. 

It  is  hurtful  to  pastures  to  turn  in  cattle  too  early  in  the 
spring;  and  most  hurtful  to  those  pastures  in  which  the 
grass  springr  earliest,  as  in  very  low  and  wet  pastures. 
Potching  such  land  in  the  spring  destroys  the  sward,  so 
that  it  will  produce  the  less  quantity  of  grass.  Neither 
should  cat  lie  be  let  into  any  pasture  until  the  grass  is  so 
much  grown  as  to  afford  them  a  good  bite,  so  t^at  they  may 
fill  themselves  without  rambling  over  the  whole  lot.     The 


300  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

20th  of  May  is  early  enough  to  turn  cattle  into  almost  any 
of  our  pastures.  Out  of  some  they  should  be  kept  later* 
The  driest  pastures  should  be  used  first,  though  in  them  the 
grass  is  shortest,  that  the  potching  of  the  ground  in  the  wet- 
test  may  be  prevented. 

The  bushes  and  shrubs  that  rise  in  pastures  should  be  cut 
in  the  most  likely  times  to  destroy  them.  Thistles  and 
other  bad  weeds  should  be  cut  down  before  their  seeds  have 
ripened ;  and  ant-hills  should  be  destroyed.  Much  may  be 
done  towards  subduing  a  bushy  pasture  by  keeping  cattle 
hungry  in  it.  A  continual  browsing  keeps  down  *he  young 
shoots,  and  totally  kills  many  of  the  bushes.  Steers  and 
heifers  may  mend  such  a  pasture,  and  continue  growing. 

But  as  to  cleared  pastures,  it  is  not  right  to  turn  in  all 
sorts  of  cattle  promiscuously.  Milch  kine,  working  oxen, 
and  fatting  beasts,  should  have  the  first  feeding  of  an  inclo- 
sure  ;  afterwards,  sheep  and  horses.  When  the  first  lot  is 
thus  fed  off,  it  should  be  shut  up,  and  the  dung  that  has  been 
dropped  should  be  beat  to  pieces,  and  well  scattered.  After- 
wards, the  second  pasture  should  be  treated  in  the  spme 
manner,  and  the  rest  in  course,  feeding  the  wettest  pasture 
after  the  driest,  that  the  soil  may  be  less  potched. 

Something  considerable  is  saved  by  letting  all  sorts  of 
grazing  animals  take  their  turn  in  a  pasture.  By  means  of 
this,  nearly  all  the  herbage  produced  will  be  eaten  ;  much  of 
which  would  otherwise  be  lost.  Horses  will  eat  the  leavings 
of  horned  cattle ;  and  sheep  will  eat  some  things  that  both 
the  one  and  the  other  leave. 

But  if  in  a  course  of  pasturing,  by  means  of  a  fruitful 
year  or  a  scanty  stock  of  cattle,  some  grass  of  a  good  kind 
should  run  up  to  seed  and  not  be  eaten,  it  need  not  be  re- 
gretted ;  for  a  new  supply  of  seed  will  fill  the  ground  with 
new  roots,  which  are  better  than  old  ones.  And  I  know  of 
no  grass  that  never  needs  i  ?ne\ving  from  the  seed. 

A  farmer  needs  not  to  be  told,  that  if  he  turn  swine  into 
a  pasture,  they  should  have  rings  in  their  noses,  unless 
brakes  and  other  weeds  need  to  be  rooted  out.  Swine  may 
do  service  in  this  way.  They  should  never  have  the  first  of 
the  feed ;  for  they  will  foul  the  grass,  and  make  it  distasteful 
to  horses  and  cattle. 

Let  the  stock  of  a  farmer  be  greater  or  less,  he  should 
have  at  least  four  inclosures  of  pasture  land.  One  inclosure 
may  be  fed  two  weeks,  and  then  shut  up  to  grow  ;  then 
another.     Each  one  will  recruit  well  in  six  weeks ;  and  each 


AND    RURAL   ECONOMIST.  301 

will  have  this  space  of  time  to  recruit.  But  in  the  latter 
part  of  October,  the  cattle  may  range  through  all  the  lots, 
unless  some  one  may  become  too  wet  and  soft.  In  this  case, 
it  ouglit  to  be  shut  up,  and  kept  so  till  feeding  time  the  next 
year. 

But  that  farmers  may  not  be  troubled  with  low  miry  pas- 
tures, they  should  drain  them,  if  it  be  practicable,  or  can  be 
done  consistently  with  their  other  business.  If  they  should 
produce  a  smaller  quantity  of  grass  afterwards,  it  will  be 
sweeter,  and  of  more  value.  It  is  well  known,  that  cattle 
fatted  in  a  dry  pasture  have  better  tasted  flesh  than  those 
which  are  fatted  in  a  wot  one.  In  the  old  countries  it  will 
fetch  a  higher  price.  This  is  particularly  the  case  as  to 
mutton. 

Feeding  pastures  in  rotation  is  of  greater  advantage  than 
some  are  apt  to  imagine.  One  acre,  managed  according  to 
the  above  directions,  will  turn  to  better  account,  as  some 
say  v.ho  have  practised  it,  than  three  acres  in  the  common 
way.  By  the  common  way  I  would  be  understood  to  mean, 
having  weak  and  tottering  fences,  that  will  drop  of  them- 
selves in  a  i^ew  months,  and  never  can  resist  the  violence  of 
disorderly  cattle;  suffering  weeds  and  bushes  to  overrun  the 
land  ;  keeping  all  the  pasture  land  in  one  inclosure  ;  turn- 
ing in  all  sorts  of  stock  together  ;  suffering  the  fence  to 
drop  down  in  autumn,  so  as  to  lay  the  pasture  common  to 
all  the  swine  and  cattle  that  please  to  enter  ;  and  not  putting 
up  the  fence  again  till  the  first  of  May,  or  later.  Such 
management  is  too  common  in  all  the  parts  of  this  country 
with  which  I  am  most  acquainted.  I  would  hope  it  is  not 
universal. 

Land  which  is  constantly  used  as  pasture  will  be  enriched. 
Therefore  it  is  advisable  to  mow  a  pasture  lot  once  in  three 
or  four  years,  if  the  surface  be  so  level  as  to  admit  of  it.  In 
the  mean  time,  to  make  amends  for  the  loss  of  pasture,  a 
mowing  lot  may  be  pastured.  It  will  thus  be  imp  oved  : 
and  if  the  grass  do  not  grow  so  rank  afterwards  in  the  pas- 
ture lot,  it  will  be  more  clear  of  weeds,  and  bear  better  grass. 
Alternate  pasturing  and  mowing  has  the  advantage  of  saving 
a  good  deal  of  expense  and  trouble  in  manuring  the  mowing 
grounds. 

Though  pastures  need  manuring  less  than  other  lands,  yet, 
when  bushes,  bad  weeds,  &:c.  are  burnt  upon  them,  the  ashes 
should  be  spread  thinly  over  the   surface.     The  grass  will 
26 


302  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

thus  be  improved :  and  grass  seeds  should  be  sown  upon  the 
burnt  spots,  that  no  part  may  be  vacant  of  grass. 

Sheep,  calves,  and  horses,  unless  they  are  worked,  it  is 
said,  require  no  water  in  their  pastures.  The  want  of  water 
induces  them  to  feed  in  the  night,  when  the  dew  is  on  and 
the  grass  the  more  nutritious.  Cows  however  want  pure 
water. 

In  pastures  which  are  on  side-hills,  water  may  generally 
be  obtained  by  digging  horizontally  into  the  side  of  the  hill, 
till  it  is  found,  and  then  carrying  it  out  with  a  pipe. — 
Deane. 

'  We  learn  from  English  writers  on  agriculture,  that  three 
modes  have  been  adopted  in  Great  Britain  for  consuming 
clover  and  other  herbage  plants  by  pasturing.  These  are 
tethering,  or  fastening  the  feeding  animal  to  a  stake,  hurd- 
ling, and  free  pasturage.  In  the  Agricultural  Report  of 
Aberdeenshire,  it  is  stated  that  there  are  some  cases  in  which 
the  plan  of  tethering  can  be  practised  with  more  profit  than 
even  soiling.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Peterhead,  for  in- 
stance, they  tether  milch  cows  on  their  grass  fields,  in  a 
regular  and  systematic  method,  moving  each  tether  forward 
in  a  straight  line,  not  above  one  foot  at  a  time,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  cows  from  treading  on  the  grass  that  is  to  be  eaten; 
care  being  always  taken  to  move  the  tether  forward,  like  a 
person  cutting  clover  with  a  scythe,  from  one  end  of  the  field 
to  the  other.  In  this  way,  a  greater  number  of  cows  can  be 
kept  on  tbe  same  quantity  of  grass  than  by  any  other  plan, 
except  where  it  grows  high  enough  to  be  cut  and  given  them 
green  in  houses.  In  one  instance,  the  system  was  carried  to 
great  perfection  by  a  gentleman  who  kept  a  few  sheep  upon 
longer  tethers,  following  the  cows.  Sometimes  also  he 
tethered  horses  afterwards  upon  the  same  field,  which  pre- 
vented any  possible  waste,  for  the  tufts  of  grass  produced  by 
the  dung  of  one  species  of  animal  will  be  eaten  by  those  of 
another  kind  without  reluctance.  This  mode  was  peculiarly 
calculated  for  the  cow-feeders  in  Peterhead;  as  from  the 
smallness  of  their  holdings  they  could  not  keep  servants  to 
cut  or  horses  to  carry  home  the  grass  to  their  houses,  to  be 
consumed  in  a  green  state. 

'  In  hurdling  off'  clover  or  herbage  crops,  a  portion  of  the 
field  is  inclosed  by  hurdles,  [movable  wooden  fences]  in 
which  sheep  are  confined,  and  as  the  crop  is  consumed  the 
pen  is  changed  to  a  fresh  place,  until  the  whole  is  fed  off. 
This  practice  is  very  extensively  adopted  at  Holkham,  [Eng.] 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


303 


and  is  peculiarly  calculated  for  light  and  dry  soils.  Its  ad- 
vantages are,  that  the  grass  is  more  economically  consumed ; 
that  the  stock  thrives  better,  having  daily  a  fresh  bite ;  and 
that  the  dung  which  falls,  being  more  concentrated,  is  more 
likely  to  be  of  use.' — Loudon. 

Water  should  be  provided  for  every  field  under  pasture ; 
and  also  shelter  and  shade,  either  by  a  few  trees,  or  by  a 
portable  shed,  which  may  be  moved  with  the  stock  from  one 
inclosure  to  another.  Where  there  are  no  trees,  rubbing 
posts  are  also  a  desirable  addition.  In  Germany  they  have 
portable  sheds  which  are  employed  both  in  summer  and  win- 
ter, and  generally  with  a  piece  of  rock-salt  fixed  to  a  post  for 
the  cattle  to  lick  at  will. 

Some  graziers  mix  a  few  sheep  and  one  or  two  colts  in 
each  pasture,  which  both  turn  to  account,  and  do  little  injury 
to  the  grazing  cattle.  In  some  cases,  we  are  told  that  sheep 
are  beneficial  to  pastures,  by  eating  down  and  destroying 
white  weed,  and  some  other  useless  and  pernicious  plants. 

So  various  is  the  appetite  of  animals,  that  there  is  scarcly 
any  plant  which  is  not  chosen  by  some  and  left  untouched 
by  others.  The  following  is  said  to  be  a  fact,  known  and 
practised  on  by  graziers  in  Holland.  When  eight  cows  have 
been  in  a  pasture,  and  can  no  longer  obtain  nourishment, 
two  horses  will  do  very  well  there  for  some  days,  and  when 
nothing  is  left  for  the  horses,  four  sheep  will  live  upon  it ; 
this  not  only  proceeds  from  their  differing  in  the  choice  of 
plants,  but  from  the  formation  of  their  mouths,  which  are  not 
equally  adapted  to  lay  hold  of  the  grass. 

Stocking  a  pasture  with  as  many  sheep  as  it  will  support 
is  recommended  for  forming  a  tender  herbage,  and  causing 
the  grass  to  mat  or  grow  very  thick  at  the  bottom. 

An  English  writer  says,  '  in  turning  out  horses  to  grass  in 
the  spring,  it  is  usual  to  choose  the  forenoon  of  a  fine  day  to 
do  it  in  ;  the  natural  consequence  is,  the  horse  fills  his  belly 
during  the  sunshine,  and  lays  down  to  rest  during  the  cold 
of  the  night,  thereby  probably  exposing  himself  to  disorders. 
In  some  parts  of  Yorkshire  a  better  practice  prevails  :  the 
horse  is  turned  out  at  bed-time ;  the  consequence  is,  he  eats 
all  night,  and  sleeps  in  the  sunshine  of  the  next  day.' 


POULTRY.     In  order  to  have  fine  fowls,  it  is  necessary 
to  choose  a  good  breed,  and  have  a  proper  care  taken  of 


304  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

them.  The  Canton  breed  is  thought  highly  of:  and  it  is 
certainly  desirable  to  have  a  fine  large  kind,  but  people  differ 
in  thei'*  opinion  which  is  best.  It  is  as  important  to  cross 
the  breeds  of  fowls  as  of  other  animals ;  hence  it  is  improper 
to  save  males  and  females  from  the  same  sittings  of  eggs,  if 
they  are  to  be  kept  for  propagation.  The  black  is  very 
juicy;  but  do  not  answer  so  well  for  boiling,  as  their  legs 
partake  of  their  color.  They  should  be  fed  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible at  the  same  hour  and  place.  Potatoes  boiled,  unskin- 
ned,  in  a  little  water,  and  then  cut,  and  either  wet  with 
skimmed  milk  or  not,  form  one  of  the  best  foods.  Turkeys 
and  fowls  thrive  amazingly  on  them.  The  milk  must  not  be 
sour. 

The  best  age  for  setting  a  hen  is  from  two  to  five  years ; 
and  you  should  remark  which  hens  make  the  best  brooders, 
and  keep  those  to  laying  who  are  giddy  and  careless  of  their 
young.  In  justice  to  the  animal  creation,  however,  it  must 
be  observed,  there  are  but  few  instances  of  bad  parents  for 
the  time  their  nursing  is  necessary. 

Hens  sit  twenty  days.  Convenient  places  should  be  pro- 
vided for  their  laying,  as  these  will  be  proper  for  sitting  like- 
wise. If  the  hen-house  is  not  secured  from  vermin,  the  eggs 
will  be  sucked  and  the  fowls  destroyed. 

Those  hens  are  usually  preferred  which  have  tufts  of 
feathers  on  their  heads ;  those  that  crow  are  not  looked  upon 
as  profitable.  Some  fine  young  fowls  should  be  reared  every 
year,  to  keep  up  a  stock  of  good  breeders;  and  by  this  at- 
tention, and  removing  bad  layers  and  careless  nurses,  you 
will  have  a  chance  of  a  good  stock. 

Let  the  hens  lay  some  time  before  you  set  them,  which 
should  be  done  from  the  end  of  February  to  the  beginning 
of  May.  While  hens  are  laying,  feed  them  well,  and  some- 
times with  oats. 

Broods  of  chickens  are  hatched  all  through  the  summer, 
but  those  that  come  out  very  late  require  much  care  till  they 
have  gained  some  strength. 

If  the  eggs  of  any  sort  are  put  under  a  hen  with  some  of 
her  own,  observe  to  add  her  own  as  manj^  days  after  the 
others  as  there  is  difference  in  the  length  of  their  sitting. 
A  turkey  and  duck  sit  thirty  days.  Choose  large  clear  eggs 
to  put  her  upon,  and  such  a  number  as  she  can  properly 
cover.  If  very  large  eggs,  there  are  sometimes  two  yolks, 
and  of  course  neither  will  be  productive.  Ten  or  twelve  are 
quite  enough. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  305 

A  hen-house  should  be  large  and  high  ;  and  should  be 
frequently  cleaned  out,  or  the  vermin  of  fowls  will  increase 
greatly.  But  hens  must  not  be  disturbed  while  sitting ;  for 
if  frightened,  they  sometimes  forsake  their  nests.  Worm- 
wood and  rue  should  be  planted  plentifully  about  their 
houses  ;  boil  some  of  the  former,  and  sprinkle  it  about  the 
floor,  which  should  be  of  smooth  earth  not  paved.  The 
windows  of  the  house  should  be  open  to  the  rising  sun,  and 
a  hole  must  be  left  at  the  door,  to  let  the  smaller  fowls  go 
in  ;  the  larger  may  be  let  in  and  out  by  opening  the  door. 
There  should  be  a  small  sliding  board  to  shut  down  when 
the  fowls  are  gone  to  roost,  which  would  prevent  the  small 
beasts  of  prey  from  committing  ravages ;  and  a  good  strong 
door  and  lock  may  possibly,  in  some  measure,  prevent  the 
depredations  of  human  enemies. 

When  some  of  the  chickens  are  hatched  long  before  the 
others,  it  may  be  necessary  to  keep  them  in  a  basket  of  wool 
till  the  others  come  forth.  The  day  after  thoy  are  hatched, 
give  them  some  crumbs  of  white  bread,  and  small  (or  rather 
cracked)  grits  soaked  in  milk.  As  soon  as  they  have  gained 
a  little  strength  feed  them  with  curd,  cheese  parings  cut 
small,  boiled  corn,  or  any  soft  food,  but  nothing  sour ;  and 
give  them  clean  water  twice  a  day.  Keep  the  hen  under  a 
pen  till  the  young  have  strength  to  follow  her  about,  which 
will  be  in  two  or  three  weeks,  and  be  sure  to  feed  her  well. 

The  food  of  fowls  goes  first  into  their  crop,  which  softens 
it ;  and  then  passes  into  the  gizzard,  which  by  constant  fric- 
tion macerates  it  :  and  this  is  facilitated  by  small  stones, 
which  are  generally  found  there,  and  w^hich  help  to  digest  the 
food. 

The  pip  in  fowls  is  occasioned  by  drinking  dirty  water,  or 
taking  filthy  food.  A  white  thin  scale  on  the  tongue  is  the 
symptom.  Pull  the  scale  oft^  with  your  nail,  and  rub  the 
tongue  with  some  salt ;  and  the  complaint  will  be  removed. 

It  answers  well  to  pay  some  boy  employed  in  the  farm  or 
stable  so  much  a  hundred  for  the  eggs  he  brings  in.  It  will 
be  his  interest  then  to  save  them  from  being  purloined,  which 
nobody  but  one  in  his  situation  can  prevent  ;  and  six  or 
eight  cents  a  hundred  will  be  buying  eggs  cheap. 

To  fatten  Fowls  or  Chickens  in  four  or  five  Days.  Set 
rice  over  the  fire  with  skimmed  milk,  only  as  much  as  will 
serve  one  day.  Let  it  boil  till  the  rice  is  quite  swelled  out : 
you  may  add  a  tea-spoonful  or  two  of  sugar,  but  it  will  do 
well  without.  Feed  them  three  times  a  day,  in  common 
26^ 


306  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

pans,  giving  them  only  as  much  as  will  quite  fill  them  at  once. 
When  you  put  fresh,  let  the  pans  be  set  in  water,  that  no 
sourness  may  be  conveyed  to  the  fowls,  as  that  prevents 
them  from  fattening.  Give  them  clean  water,  or  the  milk 
of  rice,  to  drink  ;  but  the  less  wet  the  latter  is  when  per- 
fectly soaked  the  better.  By  this  method  the  flesh  will  have 
a  clear  whiteness  which  no  other  food  gives  ;  and  when  it 
is  considered  how  far  a  pound  of  rice  will  go,  and  how  much 
time  is  saved  by  this  mode,  it  will  be  found  to  be  cheap. 
The  pen  should  be  daily  cleaned,  and  no  food  given  for  six- 
teen hours  before  poultry  be  killed.  A  proportion  of  animal 
mixed  with  vegetable  food  is  said  to  cause  poultry  to  thrive 
•rapidly,  but  they  should  be  confined  to  a  vegetable  diet  for  a 
fortnight  or  three  weeks  before  they  are  killed  for  eating. 
A  quantity  of  charcoal  broken  in  small  pieces  and  placed 
within  the  reach  of  poultry  is  said  to  increase  their  appetite, 
promote  their  digestion,  and  expedite  their  fattening. 

To  choose  Eggs  at  Market  and  'preserve  them.  Put  the 
large  end  of  the  ^^g  to  your  tongue  ;  if  it  feels  warm  it  is 
new.  In  new-laid  eggs  there  is  a  small  division  of  the  skin 
from  the  shell,  which  is  filled  with  air,  and  is  perceptible  to 
the  eye  at  the  end.  On  looking  through  them  against  the 
sun  or  a  candle,  if  fresh,  eggs  will  be  pretty  clear.  If  they 
shake  they  are  not  fresh. 

Eggs  may  be  bought  cheapest  when  the  hens  first  begin 
to  lay  in  the  spring,  before  they  sit ;  in  fall  and  winter  they 
become  dear.  They  may  be  preserved  fresh  by  dipping 
them  in  boiling  water  and  instantly  taking  them  out,  or  by 
oiling  the  shell ;  either  of  which  way  is  to  prevent  the  air 
passing  through  it  :  or  kept  on  shelves  with  small  holes  to 
receive  one  in  each,  and  be  turned  every  other  day ;  or  close 
packed  in  the  keg,  and  covered  with  strong  lime-water."^ 


BIRDS.  The  following  remarks  on  shooting  birds,  &c., 
are  from  a  communication,  published  in  the  New  England 
Farmer,  vol.  ix.  p.  338,  by  a  writer  with  the  signature 
^  Cultivator.^ 


*For  Treatises  on  Poultry  and  their  different  varieties,  see  Fessenden's 
Mowbray,  published  by  Lilly  and  Wait,  and  New  England  Farmer,  vol. 
ix.  p.  254,  278,293,  318,  341. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


307 


It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the  alarming- increase  of  worms 
and  insects  in  making  ravages  upon  our  fruit-trees  and  fruit, 
not  only  paralyzes  the  efforts  and  disheartens  the  hopes  of 
the  cultivator,  but  threatens  total  destruction  to  many  of  the 
most  delicious  kinds.  So  extensive  are  their  ravages  that 
but  very  few  of  our  apricots  and  plums  ever  ripen  without 
premature  decay  from  the  worm  generated  by  the  beetles 
which  surround  our  trees  in  the  twilight  of  the  evening  in 
great  numbers  when  the  fruit  is  quite  young.  And  when 
the  produce  of  our  apple,  pear,  or  peach  trees  is  small,  but 
few  of  these  escape  the  same  fate. 

I  attribute  the  rapid  and  alarming  ijicrease  of  these  worms 
and  insects  tvholly  to  the  diminution  of  those  birds  which 
fall  a  prey  to  our  sportsmen,  which  are  known  to  feed  upon 
them,  and  for  whose  subsistence  these  insects  were  apparent- 
ly created. 

In  addition  to  the  important  usefulness  of  these  birds,  their 
musical  notes  in  the  twilight  of  the  morning  are  peculiarly 
delightful;  awaking  the  cultivator  to  the  sublime  contem- 
plation and  enjoyment  of  all  the  infinite  beauties  of  creation. 

In  vain  will  be  all  our  toil  and  labor,  in  vain  the  united 
efforts  of  horticultural  societies  for  increasing  and  perfecting 
the  cultivation  of  the  most  delicious  varieties  of  fruits,  unless 
we  can  increase,  or  at  least  cease  to  diminish  these  useful  and 
melodious  birds. 

If  we  have  a  statute  in  this  commonwealth  providing  for 
the  protection  of  these  birds,  let  us  unite  our  efforts  to  arrest 
this  wanton  destruction  of  them  by  enforcing  the  penalties  of 
the  law  in  every  instance  of  its  violation.  Our  Horticultural 
society  can  scarcely  do  a  greater  service  in  promoting  the 
objects  of  its  organization,  than  by  making  a  spontaneous 
and  vigorous  effort  to  this  effect. 

If  there  be  no  statute  for  the  protection  of  these  invalua- 
ble creatures,  I  would  earnestly,  yet  respectfully,  suggest  to 
the  Horticultural  society  the  propriety  and  even  necessity  of 
their  petitioning  our  legislature  at  their  next  session  for 
such  an  act. 

It  is  a  common  practice  with  these  sportsmen  through  the 
summer  to  range  the  groves  and  orchards  in  this  vicinity, 
almost  every  pleasant  day,  and  more  numerously  on  holidays, 
and  to  shoot  every  bird  that  comes  within  their  reach. 

It  is  not  however  a  small  nor  an  easy  task  for  one  indi- 
vidual to  get  their  names,  residence,  and  the  evidence  neces- 
sary for  their  conviction ;  but  it  requires  the  united  efforts 


308  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

of  all  who  are  immediately  interested.  Already  have  these 
sportsmen  commenced  their  wanton  destruction  of  these  use- 
ful creatures,  even  before  they  had  time  to  build  a  nest  for 
rearing  of  their  young.  Bi.ds  that  have  survived  the 
dreary  winter  in  a  more  genial  clime,  having  now  returned 
to  bless  our  efforts  by  their  industry  and  to  cheer  our  days 
with  their  melody,  are  scarcely  permitted  to  commence  their 
vernal  song,  ere  they  must  fall  victims  to  a  w^anton  idleness 
that  is  as  destitute  of  moral  feeling  as  of  useful  employ- 
ment. 

The  following  was  originally  published  in  the  Boston  Pa- 
triot. 

'  On  Birds  and  their  Misfortunes.  We  have  already  inti- 
mated our  opinion,  that  the  labors  of  the  scientific  ornitho- 
logists are  of  far  more  practical  utility  than  the  casual  ob- 
server might  suppose  ;  and  that,  even  in  the  business  of 
legislation,  a  regard  to  his  researches  might  prevent  many 
errors,  which  may  much  affect  public  welfare.  The  legisla- 
tion on  the  subject  of  birds  has  been  marked  by  some  essen- 
tial errors,  which  have  led  to  real  evil.  By  the  law  of  1817, 
woodcocks,  snipes,  larks,  and  robins,  were  protected  at  cer- 
tain seasons  of  the  year,  whilst  war  to  the  knife  was  de- 
clared against  crows,  blackbirds,  owls,  blue-jays,  and  hawks; 
these  last  were  treated  as  a  sort  of  pirates,  subject  to  sus- 
pension at  the  yard-arm  with  the  least  possible  ceremony. 
It  so  happens,  that  the  character  of  these  very  birds  has  been 
singularly  mistaken ;  for  while  the  ordnance  of  legislation 
has  been  thus  systematically  levelled  at  them,  they,  on  a 
principle  which  man  would  do  extremely  well  to  imitate, 
have  been  returning  good  for  evil :  they  have  been  diligently 
engaged  in  extirpating  all  sorts  of  vermin,  while  never  were 
the  vilest  vermin  half  so  ill-treated  by  the  human  race.  The 
crow,  for  example,  who  is  generally  regarded  as  a  most  suspi- 
cious character,  has  had  great  injustice  done  him.  In  the 
spring,  when  the  ground  is  moist,  he  lives  in  a  state  of  the 
most  triumphant  luxury  on  grubs  ;  he  eats  the  young  corn, 
it  is  true,  but  it  is  a  necessary  of  life  to  which  he  never 
resorts  except  when  his  supply  of  animal  food  is  shortened. 
After  the  corn  is  tolerably  grown,  he  has  nothing  moro  to  do 
with  it ;  and  in  any  stage  he  destroys  at  least  five  hundred 
pernicious  grubs  and  insects  for  every  blade  of  corn  which 
he  pillages  from  man.  In  the  southern  states,  he  is  regu- 
larly permitted  to  accompany  the  ploughman,  and  collects 
the  grubs  from  the  newly -opened  furrow;  his  life  is  thus 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  309 

secured  by  the   safest  of  all  tenures,  that  of  the  interest  of 
man  in  permitting  him  to  live. 

'There  is  scarcely  a  farm  in  England  without  its  rookery; 
the  humid  atmosphere  multiplies  every  species  of  insect,  and 
those  birds  reward  man  for  his  forbearance  by  ridding  him 
of  legions  of  his  foes.  By  a  policy  like  that  which  dictated 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  they  have  occasionally 
been  exposed  to  the  mischievous  propensities  of  unruly  boys, 
who,  as  far  as  utility  is  concerned,  are  not  to  be  compared 
to  crows  :  but  the  error  of  this  step  soon  became  obvious, 
and  they  are  now  received  with  a  universal  welcome.  The 
hawk  enjoys  a  doubtful  reputation  in  the  hen-roost:  he 
sometimes  destroys  the  chickens  but  with  the  consistency 
of  man  does  not  like  to  see  his  infirmities  copied  by  an- 
other ;  and  by  way  of  compensation  demolishes  the  fox, 
which  eats  twenty  chickens  where  he  eats  but  one ;  so  that 
it  is  hardly  the  part  of  wisdom  to  set  a  price  upon  his  head, 
while  the  fox,  a  hardened  knave,  is  not  honored  with  a  penal 
statute.  How  the  owl  became  to  be  included  in  this  black 
list,  it  is  difficult  to  conjecture ;  he  is  a  grave,  reflecting 
bird,  Avho  has  nothing  to  do  with  man,  except  to  benefit  him 
by  eating  weasels,  foxes,  racoons,  rats,  and  mice,  a  sin  for 
which  most  housekeepers  will  readily  forgive  him.  In  some 
parts  of  Europe  he  is  kept  in  families,  like  the  cat,  whom 
he  equals  in  patience  and  -supa,sses  in  alertness.  Another 
of  these  birds,  the  blackbird,  is  the  avowed  enemy  of  grubs, 
like  the  crow;  in  the  middle  states,  the  farmer  knows  the 
value  of  his  company  to  pluck  them  from  the  furrow  ;  and 
while  other  less  pains-taking  birds  collect  the  vermin  from 
the  surface,  his  investigations  are  more  profound,  and  he 
digs  to  the  depth  of  several  inches  in  order  to  discover  them. 
When  the  insects  are  no  longer  to  be  found,  he  eats  the  corn, 
as  well  he  may,  but  even  then  asks  but  a  moderate  compen- 
sation for  his  former  services.  Five  hundred  blackbirds  do 
less  injury  to  the  corn  than  a  single  squirrel.  The  last  upon 
the  catalogue  of  persecuted  birds  is  the  blue-jay.  Whoever 
watches  him  in  the  garden  will  see  him  descend  incessantly 
from  the  branches,  pouncing  every  time  upon  the  grub,  his 
enemy  and  ours. 

'  We  have  already  seen  that  the  act  to  which  we  have 
referred  protects  some  birds  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year ; 
among  others,  the  robin,  who  lives  on  ins3cts  and  worms, 
and  has  no  taste  for  vegetable  diet,  and  the  lark,  who  is  ex- 
tremely useful  in  his   way.     The  only  wonder  is,   that  it 


810  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

should  have  been  thought  expedient  to  allow  them  to  he  shot 
in  any  season.  The  quail,  another  of  ihe  privileged  class, 
has  no  title  to  be  named  in  ccmpany  with  the  others ;  in  the 
planting  time,  he  makes  more  havoc  than  a  regiment  of 
crows,  without  atoning  for  his  misdeeds  by  demolishing  a 
single  grub.  Nor  is  the  partridge  a  much  more  scrupulous 
respecter  of  the  rights  of  property;  though,  as  he  lives  in 
comparative  retirement,  he  succeeds  in  preserving  a  better 
name  for  honesty. 

'  There  are  some  of  our  most  familiar  birds,  of  which  a 
word  may  here  be  said.  Every  body  has  seen  the  little 
goldfinch  on  the  thistle  by  the  way-side,  and  wondered,  per- 
haps, that  his  taste  should  lead  him  to  so  thorny  a  luxury ; 
but  he  is  all  this  while  engaged  in  devouring  the  seeds, 
which  but  for  him  would  overrun  the  grounds  of  every  far- 
mer. Even  the  bob-o'-link,  a  most  conceited  coxcomb,  who 
steals  with  all  imaginable  grace,  destroys  millions  of  the 
insects  which  annoy  the  farmer  most.  All  the  little  birds, 
in  fact,  which  are  seen  about  the  blossoms  of  the  trees,  are 
doing  us  the  same  service  in  their  own  way. 

'  Perhaps  there  is  no  bird  which  is  considered  more  decid- 
edly wanting  in  principle  than  the  woodpecker  ;  and,  cer- 
tainly, so  far  as  man  is  concerned,  there  is  none  more  con- 
scientious. So  long  as  a  dead  tree  can  be  found  for  her  nest, 
he  will  not  trouble  himself  to  bore  into  a  living  one  ;  what- 
ever wounds  he  makes  upon  the  living  are  considered  by 
foreign  gardeners  as  an  advantage  to  the  tree.  The  sound 
tree  is  not  the  object ;  he  is  in  pursuit  of  insects  and  their 
larvse.  In  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  forests  to  a  vast  ex- 
tent have  been  destroyed  by  an  insect,  which  would  seem  as 
capable  of  lifting  a  tree  as  of  destroying  it.  The  people 
were  alarmed  by  the  visitation,  and  sagaciously  laid  the 
mischief  at  the  door  of  the  woodpecker,  until  they  found 
that  they  had  confounded  the  bailiff  with  the  thief 

'  The  injury  arising  from  the  loss  of  a  single  crop  is  hardly 
to  be  estimated.  The  experience  which  is  taught  us  by  our 
own  misfortune  is  very  dearly  bought ;  and  we  think  that  if 
we  can  derive  it  from  others, — if,  for  example,  we  can  learn 
from  the  ornithologists  the  means  of  preventing  such  injury, 
as  in  many  instances  we  may, — the  dictates  of  economy  com- 
bine with  those  of  taste,  and  warn  us  not  to  neglect  the 
result  of  his  researches.' 

It  was  remarked  by  colonel  Powel,  that  'instead  of  being 
regaled  by  the  whistling  robin  and  chirping  bluebird,  busily 


AND    RURAL   ECONOMIST.  311 

employed  in  guarding  us  from  that  which  no  human  fore- 
sio-ht  or  labor  is  enabled  to  avert,  our  ears  are  assailed,  our 
persons  are  endangered,  our  fences  are  broken,  our  crops  are 
trodden  down,  our  cattle  are  lacerated,  and  our  flocks  aro 
disturbed  by  the  idle  shooter,  regardless  alike  of  the  expen- 
sive attempts  of  the  experimental  farmer,  or  of  the  stores  of 
the  laboring  husbandman ;  whilst  all  the  energies  of  his 
frame  and  the  aim  of  his  skill  are  directed  towards  the  mur- 
der of  a  few  little  birds,  worthless  when  obtained.  The  in- 
juries which  arc  immediately  committed  by  himself  and  his 
dogs  are  small  compared  with  the  multiplied  effects  of  the 
myriads  of  insects  which  would  be  destroyed  by  the  animals 
whereof  they  are  the  natural  prey.' 


BUSHES.  In  many  parts  of  our  country,  the  pasture 
grounds  are  infested,  and  often  overrun  with  noxious  shrubs ; 
this  is  the  most  slovenly  part  of  our  husbandry,  and  ought 
to  be  cured. 

Eradicating  them,  says  Deane,  requires  so  much  labor, 
that  farmers  are  most  commonly  content  with  cutting  them 
once  in  a  few  years.  But  the  more  cuttings  they  survive, 
the  longer  lived  they  are  apt  to  be,  and  the  harder  to  kill, 
as  the  roots  continually  gain  strength. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true,  that  cutting  bushes  in  the  summer 
will  do  more  towards  destroying  them  than  doing  it  in  any 
other  season,  particularly  in  August.  Other  circumstances 
being  equal,  the  wettest  weather  is  best  for  destroying  shrubs 
by  cutting.  Spreading  plaster  on  ground  where  bushes  have 
been  cut  may  tend  to  check  their  re-sprouting,  by  encourag- 
ing the  growth  of  grass. 

It  is  said  to  be  a  good  method  of  destroying  bushes,  to  cut 
them  with  hoes  close  to  the  surface,  when  the  ground  is 
frozen  hard ;  and  that  more  may  be  destroyed  in  a  day  in 
this  way  than  in  the  usual  method  of  cutting  with  a  bush- 
scythe. 

Bushes  which  grow  in  clusters,  as  alder,  &c.,  may  be  ex- 
peditiously pulled  up  by  oxen;  and  this  is  an  effectual  way 
to  subdue  them. 

Elder  is  considered  harder  to  subdue  than  almost  any 
other  kind  of  bush  ;  mowing  them  five  times  in  a  season,  it  is 
said,  will  not  kill  them.  The  roots  of  the  shrub-oak  will 
not  be  killed  but  by  digging  them  out. 


312  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

To  destroy  bushes  in  swamps,  flooding  two  or  three  sum' 
mers  is  the  most  approved  method.  But  if  this  is  not  con- 
venient, draining  will  so  alter  the  nature  of  the  soil,  that  the 
shrubs  which  it  naturally  produced  before  will  not  be  any 
longer  nourished  by  it ;  and  one  cutting  may  be  sufficient. 

After  all,  extirpation,  by  digging  them  out,  and  by  fire^  is 
cheajf  :st  and  most  effectual. — Farmer's  Guide. 


IRRIGATION.  The  following  is  from  the  Transactions 
of  the  Essex  Agricultural  Society. 

Dr.  Spofford's  Essay  on  hrigation.  I  feel  some  apology 
is  due  to  the  trustees  for  my  long  delay  in  fulfilling  the  ap- 
poi-ritment  with  which  I  was  honored  by  them  at  their  meet- 
ing in  September,  1830 ;  and  have  only  to  say  that  it  was 
occasioned  by  a  desire  to  obtain  from  a  friend,  then  at  a  dis- 
tance, some  account  of  an  experiment  on  a  larger  scale  than 
any  other  which  has  come  to  my  knowledge  in  this  part  of 
the  country. 

Some  degree  of  knowledge  of  vhat  constitutes  the  food  of 
plants  seems  indispensable  to  any  well-conducted  system  of 
producing  them  in  the  greatest  perfection;  and  such  know- 
ledge seems  most  likely  to  be  obtained  by  minutely  examin- 
ing their  structure,  and  carefully  observing  the  manner  of 
their  growth. 

Plants  constitute  one  of  the  great  divisions  of  organic  life, 
and  one  formed  or  constituted  by  systems  of  fibres  and  ves- 
sels, and  endowed  with  certain  powers  and  appetences  which 
place  them  at  a  greater  remove  above  unorganized  matter 
than  they  are  below  animal  life ;  and  appropriate  nourish- 
ment is  elaborated,  and  a  complete  circulation  is  carried  on 
to  the  minutest  extremity,  in  a  manner  extremely  analogous 
to  the  circulation  which  is  carried  on  in  the  arteries  and  veins 
of  the  most  perfect  animals;  and  the  apparent  intelligence 
with  which  plants  seek  for  nourishment,  light,  air,  and  sup- 
port, appears  in  some  instances  to  bear  a  strong  resemblance 
to  perception  and  knowledge ;  and  the  circulation  of  fluids 
in  the  vessels  of  plants  and  animals  appears  to  be  carried  on 
much  on  the  same  principles,  and  is  perfectly  involuntary  in 
both. 

The  indispensable  agency  of  water,  in  constituting  the 
fluids,  and  carrying  on  the  circulation  in  these  systems  of 
vessels,  has  been  universally  acknowledged ;  and  could  not 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  313 

be  overlooked  by  the  most  careless  observer,  while  he  saw 
innumerable  instances  in  which  p'ants  wither  and  dry  for 
want  of  this  substance.  But  while  this  universal  agency  has 
been  acknowledged,  it  is  believed  that  a  very  inferior  office 
has  been  assigned  to  it  from  that  which  it  really  performs. 
It  has  been  consid'^red  as  the  mere  vehicle  which  carried  and 
deposited  the  nutritious  particles  of  other  substances,  while 
it  in  reality  was  contributing  much  the  largest  portion  of 
the  actual  nourishment  to  the  plants  which  annually  clothe 
our  earth  in  living  green. 

If  this  idea  is  correct,  then  he  who  possesses  water  at  his 
command  with  which  to  supply  his  plants  at  pleasure,  or 
who  has  a  soil  adapted  to  attract  and  retain  moisture  in 
suitable  quantities,  possesses  a  mine  of  inexhaustible  wealth, 
from  which  he  can  draw  at  pleasure,  in  proportion  to  his 
industry  and  his  wants. 

In  proof  of  the  abstract  principle  that  water  constitutes  in 
a  very  large  proportion  the  food  of  plants,  I  may  be  allowed 
to  mention  one  or  two  accurate  experiments  of  distinguisli.ed 
philosophers  upon  tlii  subject,  which  appear  to  me  to  be 
quite  decisive  on  the  case. 

'  Mr.  Boyle  dried  in  an  oven  a  quantity  of  earth  proper 
for  vegetation,  and  after  carefully  weighing  it,  planted  in  it 
the  seed  of  a  gourd ;  he  watered  it  with  pure  rain  water,  and 
it  produced  a  plant  which  weighed  fourteen  pounds,  though 
the  earth  producing  ii  had  suffered  no  sensible  diminution.' 

'  A  willow  tree  was  planted  by  Van  Helmont  in  a  pot, 
containing  a  thousand  pounds  of  earih.  This  plant  was 
watered  with  distilled  water  or  pure  rain  water  ;  and  the 
vessel  so  covered  as  to  exclude  all  solid  matter.  At  the  end 
of  five  years,  upon  taking  out  the  plant,  he  found  it  had  in- 
creased in  weight  one  hundred  and  nineteen  pounds,  though 
the  earth  had  lost  only  two  ounces  of  its  original  weight.' 

The  experiments  of  Mr.  Cavendish  and  Dr.  Priestley  have 
sufficiently  proved  that  vegetables  have  the  power  of  decom- 
posing water  and  converting  it  into  such  fluids  as  they  need 
for  circulation  in  their  own  vessels ;  and  that  thev  elaborate 
from  this  substanQe  such  juices  and  fruits  as  they  are  by 
nature  calculated  to  produce. 

The  grei'  effect  which  is  so  frequently  observed  to  follow 
the  formation  of  ditches  from  the  road-sides  on  to  mowing- 
ground,  is,  no  doubt,  in  part,  to  be  attributed  to  the  manure 
which  is  thereby  washed  on  to  the  ground,  but  is  also  in  part 
27 


314  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

owing  to  the  more  copious  supply  of  water  which  it  thereby 
receives. 

That  pure  water  is  capable  of  producing  similar  effects  I 
have  the  following  experiments  to  prove : 

Several  years  ago,  when  resident  with  my  father  on  his 
farm  at  Rowley,  I  labored  hard  to  divert  a  stream,  which  fell 
into  a  miry  swamp,  from  its  usual  course  across  a  piece  of 
dry  upland.  The  stream  was  pure  spring  water,  which  issued 
between  the  hills  about  fifty  rods  above,  running  but  just  far 
enough  to  acquire  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  but 
without  receiving  any  more  fertilizing  quality  than  was  ob- 
tained in  passing  through  a  pasture  in  a  rocky  channel ;  the 
effect,  however,  was  to  double  the  quantity  of  grass.  The 
same  stream  I  again  diverted  from  its  course  about  forty  rods 
below,  after  it  had  filtered  through  a  piece  of  swamp  or 
meadow-ground,  and  with  the  same  effect ;  and  again,  still 
lower  down  its  course,  I  succeeded  in  turning  it  on  to  a  piece 
of  high  peat-meadow,  which  had  usually  produced  but  very 
little  of  any  thing ;  and  the  effect  was,  that  more  than  double 
of  the  quantity  of  grass  was  produced,  and  that  of  a  much 
better  quality.  I  was  led  to  this  latter  experiment  by  ob- 
serving that  a  strip  of  meadow  which  naturally  received  the 
water  of  this  run,  and  over  which  it  spread  for  several  rods 
in  width  without  any  particular  channel,  was  annually  much 
more  productive  than  any  other  part  of  the  meadow. 

But  the  best  experiment,  and  on  the  largest  scale  of  any 
which  I  have  known,  was  made  by  my  late  father-in-law, 
deacon  Eleazar  Spofford,  then  resident  at  Jaffrey,  New 
Hampshire.  A  letter  from  Rev,  Luke  A.  Spofford,  in  an- 
swer to  my  inquiry  on  this  subject,  observes  :  '  My  father 
commenced  the  experiment  as  early  as  the  year  1800,  and 
continued  it  till  1820,  or  to  the  time  when  he  sold  his  farm. 
The  last  ten  years  of  his  time  he  flashed  perhaps  twenty 
acres ;  and  it  produced,  I  should  think,  twice  as  much  in 
common  seasons,  and  three  times  as  much  in  dry  seasons,  as 
it  would  have  done  without  watering.  This  land  would 
hold  out  to  yield  a  good  crop  twice  as  long  as  other  land  of 
the  same  quality,'  (that  is,  I  presume, 'without  flowing.) 
'  In  dry  weather  he  watered  it  every  night,  and  the  produce 
was  good,  very  good.' 

I  am  acquainted  with  the  lot  of  land  which  was  the  sub 
ject  of  this  experiment.  It  is  a  northern  declivity,  and  rather 
a  light  and  sandy  soil,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  Contoocook 
river ;  and  the  water  used  was  that  of  the  river,  about  one 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  315 

mile  below  its  formation  by  the  junction  of  two  streams,  one 
from  a  large  pond  of  several  hundred  acres  in  Rindge,  and 
the  other  a  mountain  stream,  formed  by  innumerable  springs 
issuing  from  the  skirts  of  the  Monadnock. 

From  the  foregoing  premises  may  we  not  conclude,  that 
water  performs  a  more  important  office  in  the  growth  and 
formation  of  plants  than  has  generally  been  supposed,  and 
that  it  not  only  serves  to  convey  nourishment,  but  that  it  is 
itself  elaborated  into  nourishment,  and  thereby  constitutes 
the  solid  substance  ?  and  we  may  farther  conclude,  that  every 
farmer  should  survey  his  premises,  and  turn  those  streams 
which  now  are  often  useless  or  hurtful  on  to  lands  where 
they  are  capable  of  diffusing  fertility,  abundance,  and  wealth. 

It  appears,  farther,  that  the  immense  fertility  of  Egypt  is 
not  so  much  owing  to  the  alluvial  deposit  brought  down  by 
the  annual  inundation,  as  to  the  canals  and  reservoirs  in 
which  the  waters  are  retained,  to  be  spread  over  the  lands 
during  the  succeeding  drought,  at  the  will  of  the  cultivator. 

If,  according  to  the  experiments  of  Boyle  and  Van  Hel- 
mont,  almost  the  whole  food  of  plants  is  deriv^ed  from  water, 
then  the  principal  use  of  the  various  manures  is  to  attract 
moisture  and  stimulate  the  roots  of  plants  to  absorb  and 
*  borate  it ;  and  we  have  also  reason  to  think  that  lands  are 
n.'uch  more  injured  and  impoverished  by  naked  exposure  to 
heat  and  wind,  and  washing  by  water  that  runs  off  and  is 
lost,  than  it  is  by  producing  abundant  crops. 

In  the  present  state  of  population,  nothing  more  could  be 
expected  or  desired,  than  that  every  farmer  should  make  use 
of  such  means  as  the  small  streams  in  his  vicinity  may 
afford ;  but  in  a  densely  peopled  country,  like  Egypt  in 
former  ages,  or  China  at  present,  it  should  doubtless  be  one 
of  the  first  enterprises  of  a  good  government  to  take  our 
large  rivers  above  their  falls  and  turn  them  off  into   canals 


for  the  benefit  of  agriculture. 


Jeremiah  Spofford. 


WOOD-LAND,  ground  covered  with  wood  or  trees. 
They  are  mostly  designed  for  fuel  and  timber.  In  felling 
them  care  should  be  taken  to  injure  the  young  growth  as 
little  as  possible.  Firewood,  as  well  as  timber,  should  be 
felled  when  the  sap  is  down  ;  otherwise  it  will  hiss  and  fry 
upon  the  fire,  and  not  burn  freely,  although  it  should  be  ever 


316  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

SO  long  dried.  To  thicken  a  forest,  or  to  increase  the  num- 
ber of  trees  in  a  wood  lot,  it  should  be  well  fenced,  and  no 
cattle  be  permitted  to  be  in  it.  And  something  may  be  done, 
if  needful,  by  layers  and  cuttings. — Dea?ie. 

The  practice  of  the  populous  nations  of  Europe,  whose 
forests  have  been  cut  off  centuries  ago,  and  who  are  com- 
pelled to  resort  to  measures  of  the  strictest  economy  to  sup- 
ply themselves  with  fuel,  ought  to  have  great  weight  with 
us,  France,  in  an  especial  manner,  ought  to  be  looked  up 
to  for  wise  lessons  on  this  subject.  Her  vast  and  thickly 
settled  population,  her  numerous  manufactures,  her  poverty 
in  mineral  coal,  the  eminence  which  she  has  attained  in  all 
economical  arts,  entitle  her  to  great  respect.  It  is  the  prac- 
tice .of  the  French  people  not  to  cut  off  their  woods  oftener 
than  once  in  twenty  or  twenty-five  years,  and  by  law,  when 
they  are  cut  over,  the  owner  is  obliged  to  cut  the  lokole 
smooth,  with  the  exception  of  a  very  few  trees,  which  the 
officers  of  the  government  had  marked  to  be  spared  for 
larger  growth.  Without  giving  any  opinion  as  to  the  pro- 
priety of  the  direct  interference  of  the  government  on  such  a 
topic,  we  should  say  that  the  example  proves  that  in  the 
opinion  of  the  French  scientific  and  practical  men,  it  is  ex- 
pedient when  wood-lands  are  cut  that  they  should  be  cut 
smooth,  in  order  that  the  new  growth  might  start  togethor, 
not  overshaded  by  other  trees  of  larger  growth.  We  have 
no  favorable  opinion  of  the  utility  of  cutting  down  trees  in  a 
scattered  manner,  as  they  appear  to  fail,  and  still  less  of 
planting  acorns  in  thinner  spots  of  the  forest.  The  growth 
thus  produced  must  remain  forever  feeble. — Loi'vell. 

A  valuable  paper  by  the  Hon.  John  Welles,  republished 
in  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  i.  page  329,  from  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository,  recommends  cutting 
hard  wood  trees  between  forty  and  fifty  years  of  age ;  and 
the  writer  states  that  '  though  trees  may  shoot  up  in  height 
by  standing  longer,  yet  the  period  of  the  most  rapid  vegeta- 
tion is  mostly  over,  and  by  this  means  much  of  the  under- 
growth is  necessarily  destroyed.'  Mr.  Welles  is  of  opinion 
that  in  cutting  over  a  wood  lot  to  obtain  fuel,  it  is  best  to 
take  the  whole  growth  as  you  proceed.  He  observes  that 
*  we  have  been  condemned  as  evincing  a  want  of  taste  in 
cutting  off  our  forests  without  leaving  what  it  would  take 
half  a  century  to  produce, — a  shade  near  where  it  is  nroposed 
to  erect  buildings.  The  fact  is  that  trees  of  original  growth 
have  their  roots  mostly  in  the  upper  stratum  of  earth,  and 


iimon  with  the  whole 
it  becomes  accommo- 
But  when  left  alone  or 
first  gale,  often  to  the 
The  Farmer's  Assis- 
and  decaying  the  better 
to  use  the  wood,  and 
which  will  grow  more 


|hk   operation    should    be   performed    in  -^t.  317 

a.  y^spmjg   as   well   as  iu  nfidsumTer.-  , 
UL  lough  loose  parts  of  the  bark  should  be    ''*^  '">°^^  ""''  '^  '"=*«'* 

e   follf  ;  ^'''^'^""^'^  '1"^"  be  covered  with 

It   following  mixture,  as  high  as  the  opera- 

r  can  reach    with  an  ordinary  lo„.  handled 

..e.wash    brush:    fi.e    pou^lds    ^hale    oil 

n  '  ,Z  ^""i   ^"^  ^^"-  "'"'   P°»nd   fine 

soda,_ dissolved    or   mixed   with  water  to 

oonsisteney  of  cream,  and  thoroughly    ub- 

.'d  upon  the   bavk.- mr^i„g  Parml         |  - 

INSECTS,  ^t  would  far  transcend  our  limits  to  give 
even  a  brief  description  of  the  various  sorts  of  insects  which 
injure  gardens,  cultivated  fields,  &c.,  and  destroy  the  best 
productions  of  our  soil.  We  shall,  therefore,  confine  our- 
selves to  stating,  briefly,  some  of  the  most  approved  modes 
of  counteracting  the  ravages  and  effecting  the  destruction 
of  a  few  of  those  which  are  most  injurious  to  the  cultivator. 

The  preventive  operations  are  those  of  the  best  culture, 
in  the  most  extensive  sense  of  the  term,  including  what  re- 
lates to  choice  of  seed  or  plant,  soil,  situation,  and  climate. 
If  these  are  carefully  attended  to,  it  will  seldom  happen  that 
any  species  of  insect  will  effect  serious  and  permanent  inju- 
ry. Vegetables  which  are  vigorous  and  thrifty  are  not  apt 
to  be  injured  by  worms,  flies,  bugs,  &c.  Fall  ploughing,  by 
exposing  worms,  grubs,  the  larvae  of  bugs,  beetles,  &c.  to 
the  intense  frosts  of  our  winters,  is  very  beneficial.  Insects 
'  may  be  annoyed^  and  oftentimes  their  complete  destruction 
effected,  by  sprinkling  over  them,  by  means  of  a  syringe, 
watering-pot,  or  garden  engine,  simple  water,  soap-suds,  to- 
bacco-water, decoctions  of  elder,  especially  of  the  dwarf 
kind,  of  walnut  leaves,  bitter  and  acrid  herbs,  pepper,  lye 
of  wood  ashes,  or  solutions  of  pot  and  pearl-ashes,  water 
impregnated  with  salt,  tar,  turpentine,  &;c. ;  or  they  may 
be  dusted  with  sulphur,  quicklime,  and  other  acrid  sub- 
stances. Loudon  says,  '  Saline  substances,  mixed  with  wa- 
ter, are  injurious  to  most  insects  with  tender  skins,  as  the 
worm  and  slug;  and  hot  water,  where  it  can  be  applied 
without  injuring  vegetation,  is  equally,  if  not  more  power- 
fully, injurious.  Water  heated  to  one  hundred  and  twenty 
or  one  hundred  and  thirty  degrees  will  not  injure  plants 
whose  leaves  are  expanded,  and  in  some  degree  hardened; 
and  water  at  two  hundred  degrees  or  upwards  may  be 
21* 


No  wonder  that  he  already  reco 
316  THE  COMPLETE  F  ^^"^-se  !     What  a  satire  is  Hp  K 

career!  '  ^^ 

so  long  dried.     To  thicken  a  fore  ~~ _____ 

ber  of  trees  in   a  wood  lot,  it  sh       ^  Gtranbfather  ALLO^ 
cattle  be  permitted  to  be  in  it.     ^  SOR-— The  Vicar  of  W        ^^^  ' 
if  needful,  by  layers  and  cuttings  refused  to  allow  a  p-ranHf!!J^'^' 
The  practice  of  the   populous  for  his   infant  „  ^J^^^^^^her  to 

forests   have  been  cut   off  cent ur  has  intimated  tf' '^^  -^'"'^ 
pelled  to  resort  to  measures  of  tl  ^^  j^^^  ^  ^^'  ^^  the   laws  o 

ply  themselves  with  fuel,  ought  ^^j^,  .     ^^^^"^  ®"c^   a  refusal,  th 
us.     France,  in   an  especial   n  \  Emitted  as  sponsor,  of  cc 

to  for  wise  lessons  on  this  suVj^^v".  ^  "^  a  communicant  as 
settled  population,  her  numerous  manufac 
in  mineral  coal,  the  eminence  which  she  has  attamea  in  an 
economical  arts,  entitle  her  to  great  respect.  It  is  the  prac- 
tice of  the  French  people  not  to  cut  off  their  woods  oftener 
than  once  in  twenty  or  twenty-five  years,  and  by  law,  when 
they  are  cut  over,  the  owner  is  obliged  to  cut  the  whole 
srnooth,  with  the  exception  of  a  very  few  trees,  which  the 
officers  of  the  government  had  marked  to  be  spared  for 
larger  growth.  Without  giving  any  opinion  as  to  the  pro- 
priety of  the  direct  interference  of  the  government  on  such  a 
topic,  we  should  say  that  the  example  proves  that  in  the 
opinion  of  the  French  scientific  and  practical  men,  it  is  ex- 
pedient when  wood-lands  are  cut  that  they  should  be  cut 
smooth,  in  order  that  the  new  growth  might  start  togethsr, 
not  overshaded  by  other  trees  of  larger  growth.  We  have 
no  favorable  opinion  of  the  utility  of  cutting  down  trees  in  a 
scattered  manner,  as  they  appear  to  fail,  and  still  less  of 
planting  acorns  in  thinner  spots  of  the  forest.  The  growth 
thus  produced  must  remain  forever  feeble. — Loivell. 

A  valuable  paper  by  the  Hon.  John  Welles,  republished 
in  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  i.  page  329,  from  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository,  recommends  cutting 
hard  wood  trees  between  forty  and  fifty  years  of  age ;  and 
the  writer  states  that  '  though  trees  may  shoot  up  in  height 
by  standing  longer,  yet  the  period  of  the  most  rapid  vegeta- 
tion is  mostly  over,  and  by  this  means  much  of  the  under- 
growth is  necessarily  destroyed.'  Mr.  Welles  is  of  opinion 
that  in  cutting  over  a  wood  lot  to  obtain  fuel,  it  is  best  to 
take  the  whole  growth  as  you  proceed.  He  observes  that 
*  we  have  been  condemned  as  evincing  a  want  of  taste  in 
cutting  off  our  forests  without  leaving  what  it  would  take 
half  a  century  to  produce, — a  shade  near  where  it  is  nroposed 
to  erect  buildings.  The  fact  is  that  trees  of  original  growth 
have  their  roots  mostly  in  the  upper  stratum  of  earth,  and 


resu 

^"^  "^  AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  317 

on  h 

near  the  surface.  A  tree  acts  upon  its  roots  and  is  acted 
upon  by  the  wind,  sustaining  in  common  with  the  whole 
2  A  ,  forest  the  force  of  this  element,  and  it  becomes  accommo- 
Jth  h  dated  or  naturalized  to  its  pressure.  But  when  left  alone  or 
as  sp  unsustained,  it  is  borne  down  by  the  first  gale,  often  to  the 
of  J  injury  of  property  and  even  of  life.'  The  Farmer's  Assis- 
Q  Q    tant  likewise  says,  '  if  woods  are  old  and  decaying  the  better 

and    ^^^  ^^  ^^   ^^^   ^^^  ^^'   ^^  y^"  want  to  use  the  wood,  and 
let   an  entire  new  growth   start   up,  which  will  grow  more 

'}  SU  '111 

.rapidly.' 


fuir.i 


INSECTS.  It  w^ould  far  transcend  our  limits  to  give 
even  a  brief  description  of  the  various  sorts  of  insects  which 
injure  gardens,  cultivated  fields,  &c.,  and  destroy  the  best 
productions  of  our  soil.  We  shall,  therefore,  confine  our- 
selves to  stating,  briefly,  some  of  the  most  approved  modes 
of  counteracting  the  ravages  and  effecting  the  destruction 
of  a  few  of  those  which  are  most  injurious  to  the  cultivator. 

The  preventive  operations  are  those  of  the  best  culture, 
in  the  most  extensive  sense  of  the  term,  including  what  re- 
lates to  choice  of  seed  or  plant,  soil,  situation,  and  climate. 
If  these  are  carefully  attended  to,  it  will  seldom  happen  that 
any  species  of  insect  will  effect  serious  and  permanent  inju- 
ry. Vegetables  which  are  vigorous  and  thrifty  are  not  apt 
to  be  injured  by  worms,  flies,  bugs,  &;c.  Fall  ploughing,  by 
exposing  worms,  grubs,  the  larvas  of  bugs,  beetles,  &c.  to 
the  intense  frosts  of  our  winters,  is  very  beneficial.  Insects 
'  may  be  annoyed^  and  oftentimes  their  complete  destruction 
effected,  by  sprinkling  over  them,  by  means  of  a  syringe, 
watering-pot,  or  garden  engine,  simple  water,  soap-suds,  to- 
bacco-water, decoctions  of  elder,  especially  of  the  dwarf 
kind,  of  walnut  leaves,  bitter  and  acrid  herbs,  pepper,  lye 
of  wood  ashes,  or  solutions  of  pot  and  pearl-ashes,  water 
impregnated  with  salt,  tar,  turpentine,  &c. ;  or  they  may 
be  dusted  with  sulphur,  quicklime,  and  other  acrid  sub- 
stances. Loudon  says,  '  Saline  substances,  mixed  with  wa- 
ter, are  injurious  to  most  insects  with  tender  skins,  as  the 
worm  and  slug;  and  hot  water,  where  it  can  be  applied 
without  injuring  vegetation,  is  equally,  if  not  more  power- 
fully, injurious.  Water  heated  to  one  hundred  and  twenty 
or  one  hundred  and  thirty  degrees  will  not  injure  plants 
whose  leaves  are  expanded,  and  in  some  degree  hardened; 
and  water  at  two  hundred  degrees  or  upwards  may  be 
27=^ 


318  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

poured  over  leafless  plants.  The  effects  of  insects  may  also 
be  palliated  on  one  species  of  plant  by  presenting  to  them 
another  which  they  prefer  :  thus  wasps  are  said  to  prefer 
carrots,  the  berries  of  the  yew,  and  the  honey  of  the  hoya, 
to  grapes ;  honey,  or  sugared  water,  to  ripe  fruit,  and  so  on. 
One  insect  or  animal  may  also  be  set  to  eat  another,  as  ducks 
for  slugs  and  worms,  turkeys  for  the  same  purpose,  and  cater- 
pillars and  ants  for  aphides,  and  so  on.' 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Falconer,  one  of  the  correspondents  of  the 
Bath  Agricultural  society,  strongly  recommends  soap-suds, 
both  as  a  manure  and  antidote  against  insects.  He  observes, 
that  '  this  mixture  of  an  oil  and  an  alkali  has  been  more 
generally  known  than  adopted  as  a  remedy  against  the  in- 
sects which  infest  wall  fruit-trees.  It  will  dislodge  and  de- 
stroy the  insects  which  have  already  formed  their  nests  and 
bred  among  the  leaves.  When  used  in  the  early  part  of  the 
year,  it  seems  to  prevent  the  insects  from  settling  upon  them.' 
He  prefers  soap-suds  to  lime-water,  because  lime  soon  '  loses 
its  causticity,  and  with  that  its  efficacy,  by  exposure  to  air, 
and  must,  consequently,  be  frequently  applied ;  and  to  the 
dredging  of  the  leaves  with  the  fine  dust  of  wood  ashes  and 
lime,  because  the  same  effect  is  produced  by  the  mixture, 
without  the  same  labor,  and  is  obtained  without  any  ex- 
pense.' He  directs  to  make  use  of  a  common  garden-pump 
for  sprinkling  trees  with  soap-suds,  and  says,  if  the  water  of 
a  washing  cannot  be  had,  a  quantity  of  potash  dissolved  in 
water  may  be  substituted  ;  and  that  the  washing  of  the 
trees  with  soap-suds  twice  a  week,  for  three  or  four  weeks 
in  the  spring,  will  be  sufficient  to  secure  them  from  aphides, 
&c. 

Other  modes  of  counteracting  the  effects  of  insects  are 
pointed  out  in  treating  of  the  plants  which  are  most  liable 
to  be  injured  by  them.  We  shall,  however,  make  some  re- 
marks on  a  few  of  those  which  are  most  common  and  injuri- 
ous to  the  interests  of  the  cultivator. 

Canker-icorm.  We  shall  not  attempt  to  give  either  a  de- 
scription or  the  natural  history  of  the  canker-worm,  but  re- 
fer to  professor  Peck's  Memoir  on  the  subject,  (which  was 
originally  published  in  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Re- 
pository, and  republished  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol. 
V.  p.  393,)  and  direct  our  attention  exclusively  to  the  reme- 
dies which  have  been  used  or  suggested  to  preserve  fruit- 
trees  from  this  formidable  enemy. 

The  female  of  this  insect  comes  out  of  the  ground  late  in 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  319 

the  fall,  early  in  the  spring,  or,  sometimes,  during  a  period 
of  mild,  open  weather  in  winter.  Those  which  rise  in 
autumn  or  in  winter  are  less  r.umerous  than  those  which  as- 
cend in  spring  ;  but,  being  v^ry  prolific,  they  do  much  inju- 
ry. One  method  of  preventing  the  ravages  of  the  worm  is 
to  bar  the  ascent  of  the  females  up  the  stem  of  the  tree. 
This  has  generally  been  attempted  by  tarring,  of  which 
there  are  several  modifications : 

1.  A  strip  of  linen  or  canvas  is  put  round  the  body  of 
the  tree,  before  the  females  begin  their  ascent,  and  well 
smeared  with  tar.  The  insects,  in  attempting  to  pass  this 
barrier,  stick  fast  and  perish.  But  this  process,  to  complete 
the  desired  effect,  must  be  commenced  about  the  first  of  No- 
vember, and  the  tariing  continued  when  the  weather  is  mild 
enough  to  permit  the  worms  to  emerge  from  the  ground,  till 
the  latter  end  of  May,  or  till  the  time  of  their  ascent  is  past. 
It  is  necessary  to  fill  the  crevices  in  the  bark  with  clay  mor- 
tar, before  the  strip  of  linen  or  canvas  is  put  on,  that  the 
insects  may  not  pass  under  it.  Having  put  on  the  strip, 
which  should  be  at  least  three  inches  wide,  draw  it  close, 
fasten  the  ends  together  strongly,  then  tie  a  thumb-rope  of 
tow  round  the  tree,  close  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  strip. 
The  design  of  this  is  to  prevent  the  tar  from  running  down 
the  bark  of  the  tree,  which  would  injure  it.  It  should  be 
renewed  in  moderate  weather,  once  a  day,  without  fail.  The 
best  time  is  soon  after  sunset,  because  the  insects  are  wont 
to  pass  up  in  the  evening,  and  the  tar  will  not  harden  so  much 
in  the  night  as  the  day. 

2.  Another  mode  of  tarring  is  to  take  two  pretty  wide 
pieces  of  board,  plane  them,  make  semicircular  notches  in 
each,  fitting  them  to  the  stem  or  body  of  the  tree,  and 
fasten  them  together  securely  at  the  ends,  so  that  the  most 
violent  storms  may  not  displace  them.  The  crevices  betwixt 
the  boards  and  the  tree  may  be  easily  stopped  with  rags  or 
tow  ;  then  smear  the  under  sides  of  the  boards  with  tar. 
The  tar,  being  defended  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  will 
hold  its  tenacity  the  longer,  and,  therefore,  need  not  be  fre- 
quently renewed.  The  trees  in  this  way  will  be  less  liable 
to  be  injured  by  the  drippings  of  tar  by  leaving  a  margin  of 
two  or  three  inches  on  those  parts  of  the  boards  which  are 
next  to  the  trees,  to  which  no  tar  is  applied. 

3.  A  gentleman  informs  us,  that  in  Plymouth,  Massachu- 
setts, they  make  use  of  the  following  mixture  as  a  substitute 
for  tar  in  preserving  fruit-trees  against  canker-worms,  viz. : 


320  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

White  varnish,  soft  soap,  and  whale  oil,  one-third  of  each  to 
he  mixed  and  applied  as  tar  is  usually.  This  mixture  is  not 
soon  hardened  by  the  weather,  and  does  not  injure  the  trees. 
Another  simple  mode  of  preventing  the  ascent  of  the  insects 
is  to  wind  a  band  of  refuse  flax  or  swingle-tow  round  the 
tree,  and  stick  on  the  band  burdock  or  chestnut  burs  set  so 
closely  together  that  worms  cannot  j)ass  between  them. 

The  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository,  vol.  iii.  No. 
4,  contains  some  remarks  on  the  canker-worm,  by, the  Hon. 
John  Lowell,  president  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
society,  from  which  the  following  is  extracted  : 

'  I  had  the  turf  dug  in  around  sixty  apple-trees,  and  the 
earth  laid  smooth.  I  then  took  three  hogsheads  of  effete,  or 
air-slacked  lime,  and  strewed  it  an  inch  thick  round  my 
trees,  to  the  extent  of  two  or  three  feet  from  the  roots,  so 
that  the  whole  diameter  of  the  opening  was  from  four  to 
six  feet. 

'  I  tarred  these  trees  as  well  as  the  others,  and  although  I 
had  worms  or  grubs  on  most  that  were  not  limed,  I  did  not 
catch  a  single  grub  where  the  trees  were  limed. 

'  1  do  not  speak  with  confidence.  I  am,  however,  strongly 
encouraged  to  believe  the  remedy  perfect.  It  was  ascertained 
by  professor  Peck,  that  the  insect  seldom  descended  into  the 
ground  at  a  greater  distance  than  three  or  four  feet  from  the 
trunk,  and  to  the  depth  of  four  inches,  or  that  the  greater 
part  come  within  that  distance.  The  lime  is  known  to  be 
destructive  of  all  animal  substances,  and  I  have  little  doubt 
that  it  actually  decomposes  and  destroys  the  insect  in  the 
chrysalis  state  ;  at  least  I  hope  that  this  is  the  case. 

'  There  are  many  reasons  which  should  encourage  a  repe- 
tition of  this  experiment.  The  digging  round  the  trees  is 
highly  useful  to  them,  while  tarring  is  very  injurious.  The 
expense  is  not  great.  A  man  can  dig  round  fifty  trees  in  one 
day.  The  lime  is  a  most  salutary  manure  to  the  tree. 
After  the  spot  has  been  once  opened  and  limed,  the  labor 
of  keeping  it  open  will  not  be  great.  Three  hogsheads  of 
air-slacked  lime,  or  the  sweepings  of  a  lime-store,  will  suf- 
fice for  fifty  trees,  and  will  cost  three  dollars.  As  it  is  done 
but  once  a  year,  I  think  it  cannot  be  half  so  expensive  as 
tarring. 

'  I  repeat  it,  that  I  mention  my  experiments  with  great 
diffidence,  as  being  the  first  of  my  own  knowledge.  It  may 
induce  several  persons  to  try  it  in  different  places,  and  where 
trees  are  surrounded  with  others  which  are  treated  differently. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  321 

All  I  pray  is,  that  it  may  prove  successful  and  relieve  us 
from  this  dreadful  scourge,  which  defaces  our  country,  while 
it  impoverishes  and  disappoints  the  farmer.' 

The  remedies  proposed  by  professor  Peck  were,  1st.  Turn- 
ing up  the  ground  carefully  in  October,  as  far  as  the  branches 
of  a  tree  extend,  to  half  a  spade's  depth,  or  five  inches,  so 
as  completely  to  invert  the  surface.  A  great  number  of 
chrysalids  would  thus  be  exposed  to  the  air  and  sun,  and  of 
course  destroyed.  2dly.  Breaking  the  clods,  and  smoothing 
the  surf.ice  with  a  rake,  and  passing  a  heavy  roller  over  it, 
so  as  to  make  it  very  hard,  and  without  cracks.  In  grass 
grounds  the  sods  should  be  turned  with  the  grass  side  down, 
and  placed  side  by  side,  so  as  to  be  rolled.  The  winter's 
frosts  would  heave  and  crack  a  smooth  surface,  but  it  might 
be  smoothed  and  hardened  by  the  roller,  or  by  other  means, 
in  March,  with  much  less  trouble,  time,  and  expense,  than 
rolling  requires.  Ap  lime,  when  slacked,  is  reduced  to  an  im- 
palpable powder,  and  is  thus  well  adapted  to  close  the  open- 
ings in  the  surface,  Mr.  Peck  was  inclined  to  think  its  good 
effects  are  produced  this  way  as  well  as  by  its  caustic  quali- 
ties.—  Thachers  Orchardist,  p.  93. 

John  Kenrick,  Esq.,  of  Newton,  Massachusetts,  proposed, 
between  the  time  in  June  after  the  worms  had  disappeared 
and  the  20th  of  October,  to  take  the  whole  of  the  soil  sur- 
rounding the  trees,  to  the  extent  at  least  of  four  feet  from 
the  trunk,  and  to  a  suitable  depth,  and  cart  it  away  to  a  dis- 
tance from  any  trees  which  the  canker-worms  are  in  the 
habit  of  feeding  on  ;  and  returning  an  equal  quantity  of  com- 
post or  rich  earth  intermixed  w^ith  manure. 

A  writer  for  the  Neio  England  Farmer,  vol.  iii.  p.  327, 
states  a  case  of  an  orchard  having  been  preserved  from 
canker-worms  by  means  of  a  large  number  of  locust-trees, 
equal  t"*  about  double  the  number  of  apple-trees. 

Mr.  Poland  Howard,  of  Easton,  Massachusetts,  observes, 
(iV.  E.  Farmer,  vol.  iv.  p.  391,)  that  '  a  quantity  of  lime 
was  collected  from  the  sweepings  of  a  lime-store,  and  spread 
on  the  ground  around  a  certain  apple-tree,  some  time  in  the 
month  of  November;  (the  foliage  of  which  tree  haa  been 
destroyed  by  the  canker-worm  the  preceding  summer  ;)  the 
ground  being  in  a  pulverized  state,  the  lime  was  spread  as 
far  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree  as  the  drippings  from  the 
branches  extended  :  the  effect  was  stated  to  be  the  entire 
disappearance  of  the  worm,  and  an  increased  vigor  of  the 
tree.'     The   same  writer  observes,   that   '  moving  the  earth 


322  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

v/ith  a  plough  or  hoe  late  in  November,  or  beginning  of  De- 
cember, has  been  found  very  efficacious  in  destroying  them.' 
This  last  mentioned  remedy,  if  it  will  always  prove  efficient, 
will  probably  be  the  cheapest  and  most  expedient.  But  the 
worm  must  be  capable  of  enduring  a  considerable  degree  of 
cold,  or  unerring  instinct  would  not  lead  it  from  its  dormito- 
ry in  November  (as  it  frequently  does)  to  brave  the  rigors 
of  winter  on  the  stem  or  branches  of  the  tree.  We  are  in- 
clined to  believe,  as  well  as  to  hope,  that  the  apphcation  of 
lime,  as  above  stated,  will  prove  effectual ;  and  if  so,  it  will 
probably  be  preferable  to  any  mode  of  applying  tar,  or  at- 
tacking the  enemy  above  ground. 

When  the  insects  have  ascended,  their  numbers  may  be 
lessened  by  jarring  or  shaking  the  body  or  limbs  of  the  tree, 
causing  them  to  suspend  themselves  by  the  threads  which 
they  spin  from  their  bodies,  and  striking  them  off  with  a 
stick.  It  is  said  that  those  which  thus  fall  to  the  earth  do 
not  rise  again.  Whether  they  would  be  able  to  resist  the 
effects  of  a  sprinkling  with  soap-suds,  saline  or  bitter  infu- 
sions, &c.,  is  more  than  we  can  say ;  but  we  wish  their 
powers  nr-ight  be  tested  by  showering  them  with  those  mix- 
tures which  are  found  to  be  the  best  antidotes  against  other 
insects. 

Caterpillar.  '  This  is  one  of  the  worst  enemies  to  an 
orchard  when  neglected  ;  but  easily  destroyed  by  a  little 
attention.  In  the  spring,  when  the  nests  are  small  and  the 
insects  young  and  tender,  they  never  venture  abroad  in  the 
early  part  of  the  day,  when  the  dew  is  on  the  trees,  or  in 
bad  weather  ;  they  may  then  be  effectually  destroyed  by 
crushing  them  in  the  nest.  This  attention,  continued  a  short 
time  every  spring,  will  destroy  those  in  existence,  and  will 
prevent  their  increase  in  future  years :  if  left  till  grown 
strong,  they  wander  from  their  nests,  and  cannot  be  effectu- 
ally overcome  without  great  trouble  and  expense.' — Coxe  on 
Fruit-  Trees. 

The  Hon.  Timothy  Pickering,  in  a  letter  to  the  corre- 
sponding secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  socie- 
ty, has  recommended  an  implement  for  the  destruction  of 
caterpillars.  It  is  made  by  inserting  some  hog's  bristles 
between  twisted  wires,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  cylin- 
drical brush,  which  will  present  bristles  on  every^ide.  This 
is  attached  to  a  pole  of  such  length  £s  the  trees  may  require, 
and  the  caterpillars  are  brought  down  by  it,  and  then  crush- 
ed.    Other  methods  have  been  proposed,  such  as  casting  over 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  323 

the  tree  a  few  handfuls  of  ashes,  in  the  morning  before  the 
dew  is  dissipated  from  the  foliage,  or  after  a  shower  of  rain. 
A  strong  whitewash  of  fresh  stone-lime,  applied  by  the  means 
of  a  mop.  or  sponge  fixed  to  the  end  of  a  pole,  strong  soap- 
suds, spirits  of  turpentine,  a  little  oil  of  any  kind,  particularly 
blubber  oil,  are  likewise  fatal  to  the  insects.  But,  perhaps, 
the  most  effectual  remedy  is  the  hand^  by  which  the  insects 
may  easily  be  removed  at  an  early  stage ;  but  if  this  be 
neglected,  it  is  thought  that  the  next  best  remedy  is  the  use 
of  colonel  Pickering's  brush  as  above.  In  applying  either  of 
these  remedies,  care  must  be  taken  to  choose  that  part  of  the 
day  when  the  caterpillars  are  in  their  nests.  They  rarely 
quit  them  till  nine  o'clock,  and  generally  return  to  them 
again  about  twelve. 

Curculio.  This  is  a  small  bug,  or  beetle,  which  perfo- 
rates the  young  fruit  of  the  pear,  apple,  and  all  stone  fruits, 
and  deposits  its  eggs  in  them.  The  eggs  soon  hatch,  and  a 
small  maggot  is  produced,  which  feeds  either  on  the  pulp  of 
the  fruit,  or  on  the  kernel  of  the  seed ;  for  the  tastes  and 
habits  of  the  different  species  are  not  similar.  In  the  stone 
fruits,  this  injury  destroys  their  growth,  and  they  fall  with 
the  little  enemy  within  them.  The  insect  retreats  into  the 
earth,  and  passes  the  winter  in  the  chrysalis  state,  and  comes 
forth  just  as  the  young  fruit  is  forming,  or  the  petals  of  the 
flowers  are  falling,  to  renew  its  mischievous  labors.  This 
insect  continues  its  depredations  from  the  first  of  May  until 
autumn.  Dr.  James  Tilton,  of  Wilmington,  Delaware,  in 
an  article  on  this  subject,  published  in  the  American  editions 
of  Willich's  Domestic  Ejicijclopedia,  observes  that  'our  fruits, 
collectively  estimated,  must  thereby  be  depreciated  more 
than  half  their  value ;'  and  adds,  in  his  directions  for  de- 
stroying the  insect,  '  all  the  domestic  animals,  if  well  direct- 
ed, contribute  to  this  purpose.  Hogs,  in  a  special  manner, 
are  qualified  for  the  work  of  extermination.  In  large  or- 
chards, care  should  be  taken  that  the  stock  of  hogs  is  suffi- 
cient to  eat  up  all  the  early  fruit  which  falls  from  May  till 
August.  This  precaution  will  be  more  especially  necessary 
in  large  peach  orchards ;  for  otherwise,  when  the  hogs  be- 
come cloyed  with  the  pulp  of  the  peach,  they  will  let  it  fall 
out  of  their  mouths,  and  content  themselves  with  the  kernel, 
which  they  like  better ;  and  thus  the  curculio,  escaping  from 
their  jaws,  may  hide  under  ground  till  next  spring.' 

'  The  ordinary  fowls  of  a  farm-yard  are  great  devourers 
of  beetles.     Poultry  in  general   are  regarded  as  carnivorous 


324  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

in  the  summer,  and  therefore  cooped  some  time  before  they 
are  eaten.  Every  body  knows  with  what  avidity  ducks 
seize  on  the  tumble-bug,  {acarabceus  carnifex,)  and  it  is  pro- 
bable the  curculio  is^  regarded  by  all  fowls  as  an  equally  de- 
licious morsel.  Therefore  it  is  that  the  smooth  stone  fruits, 
particularly,  succeed  much  better  in  lanes  and  yards  where 
poultry  run  without  restraint,  than  in  gardens  and  other  in- 
closures,  where  fowls  are  excluded.' 

Instead  of  turning  swine  into  orchards,  to  pick  up  the 
fruit  which  falls,  and  thus  destroy  the  worms  which  it  con- 
tains, it  will  often  be  found  most  expedient  to  gather  such 
fruit,  and  give  it  to  swine  in  pens,  &c.,  either  raw,  or,  what 
would  be  better,  boiled.  If  such  measures  were  generally 
taken  with  fruit  which  falls  spontaneously,  as  to  prevent  the 
insects,  which  generally  cause  it  to  drop  prematurely,  from 
escaping  into  the  ground,  the  worms,  which  destroy  one- 
half  our  fruit,  and  very  much  deteriorate  a  considerable  part 
of  the  other  half,  would  soon  be  extirpated  from  our  orchards 
and  fruit-gardens. 

Aphis,  Plant-louse,  Puceron,  or  Vine-fretter.  '  This  genus 
of  insects  comprises  many  species  and  varieties,  which  are 
so  denominated  from  the  plants  they  infest.  The  males  are 
winged,  and  the  females  without  wings  ;  they  are  viviparous, 
producing  their  young  alive,  in  the  spring  ;  and  also  ovipa- 
rous, laying  eggs  in  autumn.  Water,  dashed  with  force 
from  a  syringe,  [or  garden  engine,]  will  prove  as  destructive 
to  them  as  any  thing,  when  on  trees ;  and  smaller  plants 
may  be  washed  with  lime-water,  with  tobacco-water,  with 
elder  leaves  infused  in  water,  or  with  common  soap-suds, 
any  of  which  will  destroy  the  insects.' — Loudo7i.  '  Tie  up 
some  flour  of  sulphur  in  a  piece  of  muslin,  or  fine  linen,  and 
with  this  the  leaves  of  young  shoots  or  plants  should  be 
dusted,  or  it  may  be  thrown  on  them  by  means  of  a  common 
swan's-down  pufT,  or  even  a  dredging  box.  Sulphur  has  also 
been  found  to  promote  the  health  of  plants,  on  which  it  was 
sprinkled,  and  that  peach  trees,  in  particular,  were  remarka- 
bly improved  by  it.' — Domestic  Encydopedia.  'In  green- 
houses, they  are  readily  destroyed  by  the  smoke  of  tobacco, 
or  of  sulphur  :  but  in  the  open  air,  fumigation,  though  much 
in  vogue  many  years  since,  is  of  no  avail.  The  best  remedy 
is  the  simplest.  Soap-suds,  forcibly  applied,  will,  after  one 
or  two  applications,  effectually  destroy  them,  without  appa- 
rent injury  to  the  plant.' — Deane. 

A  writer  for  the   New  England  Farmer,  vol.  iii,  p.  9,  after 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  325 

stating  a  number  of  experiments  with  soap-suds,  for  destroy- 
ing aphides,  which  were  unsuccessful,  or  but  partially  suc- 
ceeded, says,  '  I  was  led  io  conclude,  that  it  is  not  sufficient 
to  wet  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves,  thinking  to  make  them 
disagreeable  or  poisonous  to  the  insect,  but  that  they  must 
be  well  drenched  or  immersed  in  the  suds.  I  therefore  ap- 
plied again  the  same  remedy ;  but  with  this  difference — 
instead  of  r;^rinkling  the  upper  side  of  the  branches,  I  carried 
a  pailful  of  suds  from  tree  to  tree,  and,  bending  the  tops  of 
small  trees,  and  the  branches  of  larger  ones,  immersed  all 
the  parts  infested  with  lice,  holding  them  in  the  liquor  for  a 
moment,  that  none  might  escape  being  well  v;et.  On  ex- 
amining the  trees  the  next  day,  the  greater  part  of  the  lice 
were  destroyed.  It  was  found  necessary  to  repeat  the  same 
process  once  or  twice,  with  suds  not  too  weak,  say  about 
two  or  three  ounces  of  soap  to  a  gallon  of  water.'  Another 
writer  in  the  same  paper,  page  10,  says,  '  I  have  applied  soap- 
suds to  my  apple-trees,  in  order  to  kill  the  lice.  It  will  be 
sufficient  for  me  to  say,  that  just  sprinkling  them  with  suds 
will  not  kill  them  ;  neither  will  dipping  the  branches  which 
are  infested  with  them  kill  them.  But  dipping  and  holding 
them  in  as  long  as  I  can  conveniently  hold  my  breath,  wiU 
destroy  every  one.  The  suds  do  not  appear  to  injure  the 
leaves.  I  tried  suds  made  on  purpose,  and  suds  which  had 
been  used  for  family  washing.  The  latter  answers  the  pur- 
pose much  the  best.'  It  is  possible  to  make  soap-suds  so 
strong  as  to  kill  the  tender  branches,  as  well  as  the  insects 
which  infest  them.  The  proportion  above  mentioned,  of  two 
or  three  ounces  of  soap  to  a  gallon  of  water,  is  probably 
most  advisable.' 

Cut -worm.  This  is  an  ash-colored  worm,  with  a  stripe 
almost  black  on  its  back.  When  fully  grown  it  is  about  the 
size  of  a  gooseqnill,  and  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in 
length.  They  are  very  apt  to  cut  off  young  cabbages,  cauli- 
flowers, beets,  &c.  They  never  voluntarily  appear  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground  in  the  day  time,  but  may  be  found 
about  an  inch  below  it.  In  the  night  they  make  their  ex- 
cursions, cut  off  the  stems  of  young  plants  just  at  the  top  of 
the  ground,  and  again  bury  themselves. 

Dr.  Deane  observed,  '  I  once  prevented  their  depredations 
in  my  garden,  by  manuring  the  soil  with  sea-mud,  newly 
taken  from  the  flats.  The  plants  generally  escaped,  though 
every  one  was  cut  off  in  a  spot  of  ground  that  lies  contigu- 
ous. From  the  success  of  this  experiment,  I  conclude  that 
28 


326  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

salt  is  very  offensive  or  pernicious  to  them.  Lime  and  ashes, 
in  some  measure,  prevent  their  doing  mischief;  but  sea- 
water,  salt,  or  brine,  would  be  more  effectual  antidotes. 
The  most  effectual,  and  not  a  laborious  remedy,  even  in  field- 
culture,  is  to  go  round  ev^ery  morning,  and  open  the  earth 
at  the  foot  of  the  plant,  and  you  will  never  fail  to  find  the 
worm  at  the  root  within  four  inches.  Kill  him,  and  you 
will  save  not  only  the  other  plants  of  your  field,  but,  pro- 
bably, many  thousands  in  future  years.' 

There  is  some  danger,  in  making  use  of  sak,  brine,  or 
sea-water,  of  injuring  the  plants  in  attempting  to  destroy 
insects ;  and  we  should,  therefore,  generally  prefer  decoc- 
tions of  elder,  walnut  leaves,  or  tobacco.  Mr.  Preston,  of 
Stockport,  Pennsylvania,  preserved  his  cabbage-plants  from 
cut-worms  by  wrapping  a  hickory-leaf  round  the  stem,  be- 
tween the  roots  and  leaves. — New  England  Farmer,  vol.  iii. 
p.  369.  The  Hon.  Mr.  Fiske,  of  Worcester,  Massachusetts, 
in  speaking  of  this  insect,  says,  '  To  search  out  the  spoiler, 
and  kill  him,  is  the  very  best  course ;  but  as  his  existence  is 
not  known  except  by  his  ravages,  I  make  a  fortress  for  my 
plants  with  paper,  winding  it  conically  and  firmly  above  the 
root,  and  securing  it  by  a  low  embankment  of  earth,' — New 
England  Farmer,  vol.  iv.  p.  362. 

Jjice  on  Apple-trees.  There  is  a  species  of  insect  infesting 
apple-trees  which  may  be  styled  the  hark  louse,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  plant  louse,  or  aphis.  It  is,  in  form,  like 
half  a  kernel  of  rye,  but  much  smaller,  with  the  flat  side 
sticking  to  the  bark  of  the  tree.  Jesse  Buel,  Esq.,  of  Alba- 
ny, gives  the  following  statement  of  his  mode  of  destroying 
them  :  '  In  June  last,  I  observed  directions  in  the  New  Eng- 
land Fanner  for  destroying  the  parasitic  enemy  ;  and,  that 
being  the  particular  time  to  make  the  application,  I  imme- 
diatel}^  set  about  it.  For  this  purpose,  I  took  eight  parts  of 
water  and  two  of  soft  soap,  and  mixed  with  these  lime 
enough  to  make  a  thick  whitewash.  With  a  whitewash 
and  paint  brush  I  put  this  upon  the  trunks  and  limbs  of 
trees,  as  high  as  was  practicable,  filling  the  cracks  in  the 
bark,  and  covering  the  whole  surface.  The  effect  has  been 
not  only  to  destroy  most  of  the  lice,  but  to  give  the  trees  an 
improved  and  v'gorous  appearance.  The  outer  bark,  which, 
from  a  stinted  growth,  had  become  rough  and  hard,  has,  in  a 
measure,  fallen  off  in  flakes,  and  disclosed  a  soft,  smooth 
bark,  the  sure  indication  of  health.' 

Apple-tree  Borer.     {Saperda  bivitata.)     The  scientific  de- 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  327 

scription  of  this  very  pernicious  insect  is  thus  given  by  pro- 
fessor Say,  of  Philadelphia  :  '  Hoary  ;  above,  light-brown, 
with  two  broad  white  fillets.  Inhabits  the  United  States. 
Body,  white;  eyes,  fuscous  ;  a  small  spot  on  the  vertex,  and 
another  behind  each  eye,  light-brown  ;  antennce,  moderate, 
slightly  tinged  with  bluish  ;  thorax,  light  brown,  with  two 
broad,  white  lines,  approaching  before ;  eZ?/?ra,  light-brown, 
irregularly  punc^^ured  ;  a  broad,  white,  longitudinal  line  on 
each,  nearer  to  the  suture  than  to  the  outer  edge.  Length, 
from  one-half  to  seven-tenths  of  an  inch.  A  very  pretty  in- 
sect. In  the  larvce  state,  it  is  very  injurious  to  the  apple- 
tree,  boring  into  the  wood.' — Journal  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, Phil.  vol.  i:i.  p.  409. 

Professor  Say,  in  a  letter  to  Jesse  Buel,  Esq.,  says,  '  You 
state  that  it  leaves  the  pupa,  and  becomes  perfect  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  April,  and  that  the  eggs  are  deposited  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  These  two  circumstances  ascer- 
tained, I  wojjld  recommend  the  application,  early  in  May,  or 
the  latter  part  of  April,  of  common  bricklayer's  mortar, 
around  the  base  of  the  tree,  so  as  to  cover  completely  the 
part,  and  its  immediate  vicinity,  where  the  deposit  is  made. 
This  preventive  was  successfully  employed  by  Mr.  Shot- 
A  f  ]]  against  the  attacks  of  the  peach-tree  insect,  (see  Ameri- 
can Farmer,  vol.  vi.  p.  14,)  and  I  see  no  reason  why  it  should 
not  be  equally  efficacious  in  the  preservation  of  the  apple- 
tree.' — Memoirs  of  the  Neiu  York  Board  of  Agriculture,  vol. 
iii.  p.  479. 

The  Massach?/ setts  Agricultural  Repository,  vol.  v.  p.  360, 
contains  a  paper  on  this  insect,  by  John  Prince,  Esq.,  by 
which  it  appears  that  worms  of  this  kind  are  got  rid  of  by 
*  digging  round  the  tree,  and  clearing  away  the  earth  to  the 
roots,  and  then  with  a  sharp-pointed  knife,  a  chisel,  or  a 
gouge,  end  a  small  wire  to  probe,  if  they  are  deep  in  the 
tree,  they  may  easily  be  destroyed.'  After  taking  out  the 
worms  the  wounds  should  be  covered  over  with  graftinor-clay 
and  a  large  proportion  of  dry  wood  ashes  mixed,  and  the 
earth  then  returned  to  the  tree.  The  process  for  cleansino- 
the  trees  from  borers  should  be  performed  in  the  spring,  as 
soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  or  at  least  before  the 
month  of  June,  as  the  perfect  insect  escapes  before  that 
time. 

Slug-iuorm,  or  Naked  Snail.  These  reptiles  appear  on 
the  leaves  of  fruit-ti-ees  in  the  month  of  July.  Professor 
Peck   has   ascertained  that  they  are  the  progeny  of  a  small 


328  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

black  fly,  which  deposits  its  eg-gs  in  the  leaf  in  the  months 
of  xMay  and  June.  They  may  be  destroyed  by  means  of 
lime,  sprinkled  over  the  leaves  in  the  form  of  povvJer.  For 
this  purpose  a  wooden  box  of  convenient  size,  having  its 
bottom  perforated  with  numerous  small  holes,  is  to  be  filled 
with  lime.  This  being  mounted  on  a  pole  and  shaken  over 
the  tree,  distributes  the  lime  among  the  leaves,  and  the  slugs 
are  immediately  destroyed.  The  labor  is  very  trivial ;  a 
man  may  cover  a  large  tree  in  three  or  four  minutes  ;  and 
the  desired  effect  is  certain.  Fine  earth  shaken  through  a 
basket  or  perforated  box  will  answer  as  well. 

'  Another  remedy,  it  is  said,  will  prove  equally  effectual. 
It  is  a  strong  iafusion  of  tar,  made  by  pouring  water  on  tar, 
and  s.uffering  it  to  stand  two  or  three  days,  when  it  becomes 
strongly  impregnated.  This,  if  sprinkled  over  the  leaves  by 
means  of  an  engine,  will  kill  these  vermin  instantaneously. 
A  strong  decoction  of  tobacco  will  probably  produce  the  de- 
sired effect,  and  tanner's  bark  put  round  the  t-ee,  it  is  said, 
will  have  a  salutary  tendency  as  a  preventive.' — Thacher's 
Orchardist. 

Forsyth  recommends  watering  the  ground  where  these  in- 
sects are  with  soap-suds  and  urine,  mixed  with  tobacco- 
water.  Ducks  admitted  into  a  garden  will  destroy  all  within 
their  reach. 

Wire-ioorm,  or  Red-worm.  This  insect  is  slender,  and  usu- 
ally about  an  inch  long,  with  a  hard  coat,  and  a  pointed 
head.  Mr.  William  Moody,  of  Saco,  (Maine,)  in  a  commu- 
nication to  Hon.  Josiah  Quincy,  published  in  the  Massachu- 
setts Agricultural  Repository,  vol.  iv.  p.  3-53,  observes,  '  I  am 
persuaded,  from  experience,  that  sea-sand,  put  under  corn  or 
potatoes  v/ith  manure,  or  spread  on  the  land,  will  go  far,  if 
not  wholly,  to  the  total  destruction  of  these  destructive 
worms,  on  which  nothing  else  seems  to  have  any  effect.  It 
has  a  beneficial  effect  spread  on  land  before  ploughing,  or 
even  after  land  is  planted  with  corn  or  potatoes,  not  only  to 
destroy  the  wire-worm  and  other  insects,  but  to  increase  the 
crop.  With  my  neighbors  a  load  of  sea-sand  is  considered 
as  preferable  to  a  load  of  the  best  manure,  to  mix  in  with 
their  common  barn  manure,  or  to  spread  on  their  gardens 
and  low  flat  land.' 

Probably  sea-mud  or  sea-water  would  produce  good  effects 
as  preservatives  against  this  and  other  insects. 

Soaking  seed  corn  in  a  solution  of  copperas  in  water,  has 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  329 

been  found  effectual  against  this  insect.     See  page  32  of  this 
work. 

The  Striped  Bug,  or  Yelloio  Fly.  This  is  a  small  insect 
of  the  coleoptera  order,  or  such  as  have  crustaceous  elytra,  or 
wing  cases,  like  the  beetle.  The  elytra  of  this  bug  are 
striped  with  yellow  and  black.  They  prey  on  the  young 
plants  of  cucumbers,  melons,  squashes,  and  others  of  the 
cucurhitacecB  species.  '  These  insects  may  be  considerably 
thinned  by  killing  them  in  a  dewy  morning,  when  they  have 
not  the  free  use  of  their  wingS;  and  cannot  well  escape.  But 
nothing  that  I  have  tried  has  proved  so  effectual  as  sifting  or 
sprinkling  powdered  soot  upon  the  plants  when  the  morning 
dew  remains  on  them.  This  forms  a  bitter  covering  for  the 
plants,  which  the  bugs  cannot  endure  the  taste  of.' — Deane 
'  We  would  recommend  sprinkling  the  plants  with  a  little 
sulphur  or  Scotch  snuff.' — Farmer  s  Assistant.  But  the  surest 
defence  against  these  insects  is,  inclosing  the  plants  with  a 
frame,  and  a  muslin  or  gauze  covering. 

For  able  and  scientific  descriptions  of  most  of  the  insects 
which  infest  our  fields  and  gardens,  we  would  refer  to  a  '  Dis- 
course delivered  before  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  So- 
ciety, by  Thaddeus  W.  Harris,'  published  in  the  New  Eng- 
land Farmer,  vol.  xi.  p.  204,  and  following  pages. 
28^ 


AGRICULTURAL   IMPLEMENTS, 


It  was  remarked  by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  that  the  introduction 
of  new  agricultural  implements  into  a  district  is  often  a  mat- 
ter of  the°greatest  difficulty,  owing  to  the  ignorance,  the  pre- 
judice, and  obstinacy  of  farm  servants  and  laborers.  Many 
farmers,  therefore,  very  absurdly  retain  their  old  implements, 
though  convinced  of  their  inferiority,  rather  than  sour  the 
tempers  of  their  laborers  by  attempting  to  introduce  new 
ones ;  in  many  cases  however  they  have  succeeded  by  atten- 
tion and  perseverance,  and  by  rewarding  their  laborers  many 
new  and  valuable  implements  have  been  brought  into  general 
use. 

The  farmers  of  New  England  are  too  enlightened,  and  have 
too  much  regard  for  their  own  best  interest,  to  be  under  the 
dominion  of^such  profitless  prejudices.  Accordingly,  we  find 
not  only  a  very  increasing  deinand  for  new  aud  improved 
agricultural  machines,  tools,  &c.,  but  that  our  practical  far- 
mers see  that  it  is  for  their  interest  to  procure  the  best. 

It  is  now  about  ten  years  since  the  agricultural  warehouse 
was  first  established  in  Boston,  51  and  52  North  Market  street, 
J.  R.  Newell  proprietor,  and  which  has  become  so  extensive 
and  of  so  much  importance  to  the  community,  as  to  induce  the 
proprietor  to  continue  and  extend  ii  in  all  its  various  branches 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  practical  and  scientific  farmer, 
by  the  introduction  of  new  and  useful  implements  of  husbandry, 
and  to  furnish  the  best  tools  for  his  business. 

An  establishment  of  this  kind  not  only  answers  the  above 
purpose,  but  serves  as  a  depository  in  which  the  inventive 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST, 


331 


artisan  may  place  his  articles  for  sale.  The  proprietor  does 
not  hesitate  to  say  that  among  the  variety  of  articles  on  hand 
at  this  establishment  many  are  far  superior  in  their  form  and 
construction,  and  far  better  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  intended,  than  any  others  which  have  been  in  use  in 
this  country. 


Thrashing  Machines.  Pope's  improved  thrashing  machine 
was  invented  by  Ihe  late  Joseph  Pope,  Esq.,  of  Hallowell,  Maine, 
and  has  been  in  successful  operaMon  in  different  parts  of  the 
country  for  many  years,  and  is  found  to  be  the  best  operating 
machine  for  all  kinds  of  grain  that  has  been  in  use ;  it  is  well 
adapted  for  getting  out  rice. 

Flagg's  Thrashing  Machine.  This  machine,  invented  by  David 
Flagg,  of  New  York,  is  very  simple  in  its  construction,  and 
not  liable  to  get  out  of  order  ;  works  free  and  easy,  and  is  in 
very  general  use  in  the  western  part  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
and  much  approved  of,  as  likewise  his  portable  horse  power, 
to  which  the  thrashing  machine  is  attached. 

HaWs  Thrashing  Machine.  Hale's  newly  invented  rice  and 
grain  thrashing  machines  are  found  on  trial  to  be  the  most 
thorough  and  effective  implements  we  have  had  in  operation 
for  the  purpose  intended ;  it  is  a  very  simple  operating  ma- 
chine, and  powerful  and  quick  in  its  motion;  does  the  work 
well,  separates  and  cleans  the  grain  at  the  same  time.  This 
machine  must  be  to  the  rice  planter  an  indispensable  imple- 
ment ;  it  requires  but  one  man  and  a  horse  to  work  it. 

Marsh's  Boring  Apparatus,  which  is  used  to  great  advantage 
in  boring  for  water.  In  using  this  apparatus  much  labor  and 
expense  is  saved  in  sinking  wells  and  reservoirs,  and  a  great 
supply  of  the  best  water  is"  obtained.  While  boring,  an  iron 
tube  is  sunk  to  any  depth  you  please,  until  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  water  is  procured.  This  mode  of  procuring  a  good  and  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  the  best  water  is  used  to  great  advantage 
in  low  marshy  ground,  and  even  if  surrounded  by  tide  water. 


332 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


By  this  mode  of  boring,  good  water  may  be  obtained  in  the 
middle  of  the  ocean. 


Straw  Cutters.  The  straw  cutter  is  a  machine  well  worth 
the  attention  of  every  farmer,  and  should  be  in  common  use 
with  every  person  feedir.g  stock  ;  and  from  the  great  improve- 
ment and  simplicity  of  the  machines  now  in  use,  the  work  is 
done  with  great  expedition  and  facility.  It  is  a  subject  of  great 
regret  to  every  friend  of  the  agricultural  interest,  that  these 
machines  are  not  in  more  general  use.  Every  farmer  who  is 
disposed  to  use  fodder  to  the  best  possible  advantage,  and  pre- 
serve his  animals  in  the  best  health,  in  all  cases  cuts  his  fod- 
der. For  farther  explanation  of  the  profits  and  advantages 
arising  from  cutting  fodder,  the  following  statement  is  given : 

Mr.  Benjamin  HaWs  account  of  the   savings  made  hy   the  use   of 
Straw   Cutters^  em-ployed  to  cut  Hay  and   Straw  as   Fodder  for 
Horses. 
Mr.  Hale  is  proprietor  of  a  line  of  stages  running  between 

Newburyport  and  Boston.     He  says, 

The  whole  amount  of  hay  purchased 
from  April  1  to  Oct.   1,   1816,  (six 
months)  and  used  at  the  stage  sta-         Tons.   cwt. 
ble,  was  "  32        4 

At  twenty-five  dollars  per  ton,  (the 
lowest  price  at  which  hay  was  pur- 
chased "in  1816,)  $800  00 

From  Oct.  1,  1816,  to  April  1,  1817, 
whole  amount  of  hay  and  straw 
purchased  for,  and  consumed  by  the 
same  number  of  horses,  viz. : 


qrs. 
0 


lbs, 
10 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  3J^ 


T.  art.  qrs. 

lbs. 

Cost. 

Straw 

16  13   3 

10 

$160  23 

Hay 

13  14   1 

00 

350  00 

$510  23 
Deduct  on  hand  April  1,  1817,  by  es- 
timation, four  t(ns  more  than  there 
was   Oct.    1,  1816,   at  twenty-five 
dollars  per  ton,  100  $410  23 


Saving  by  the  use  of  the  straw  cutter, 
four  months  of  the  last  six  months, 
or  the  difference  in  expense  in  feed- 
ing with  cut  fcdder  and  that  which 
is  uncut,  $389  77 

Whole  aiiiouiit  of  hay  used  for  the 
horses  of  the  Salem  stage,  twenty- 
five  in  number,    from   April  1  to  T,     cwt.     qrs,    Ihs, 
Oct.  1,  1816,  viz.  :                                           22        0        0  0 

At  thirty  dollars  per  ton,  (the  lowest 

price  in  Salem,)  $660  GO 

Whole  amount  consumed  by  the  same 
number  of  horses,  from  Oct.  1, 1816, 
to  April  1,  1817, 

T.  cwt.  qrs.      lbs.  Cost. 

Straw     15     13      0        0  $187  80 

Hay  2     15      0        0  81  00 


$268  80 


Saving  in  using  chopped  fodder  five 
months,  $591  2C 

Total  saving  in  using  the  straw  cut- 
ter nine  months,  viz. :  at  Newbury- 
port,  four  mgnths,  $389  77 

At  Salem,  five  months,  391  20 


Total,  $780  97 

The  members  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  Massachusetts 
Agricultural  society,  to  w^hom  the  above  account  was  commu- 
nicated by  Mr.  Hale,  were  informed  by  that  gentleman,  that  he 
used  no  more  orrain  from  Oct.  IS  16,  to  Apri'l,  1817,  than  was 
used  from  April,  1816,  to  Oct.  1816. 

Remarks.— There  is  not  only  nmch  saving  and  gain  in  cutting 
fodder  when  hay  is  low,  but  the  animal  is  kept  in  better  health, 
more  particularly  old  horses,  and  such  as  may  have  been  in- 
jured in  their  wind. 

It  is  a  fact  that  horses  will  live  and  continue  serviceable 
much  longer  when  fed  on  cut  fodder.  The  machine  invented 
and  manufactured  by  Willis,  known  as  '  Willis^  improved  Straw 


334 


THE    COMPLETE    FARBIER 


and  Hay  Cuttcr^''^  is  the  most  durable  and  best  operating  ma- 
chine thdt  has  come  to  our  knowledge ;  and  what  is  worthy 
of  notice,  they  require  but  one  person  to  operate  them,  which 
is  not  the  case  with  many  other  machines  ;  in  this  there  is  a 
great  saving  in  cutting  feed,  and  likewise  the  fodder  may  be 
cut  of  any  length  required  ;  the  knives  being  placed  in  front  of 
the  machine  can  be  at  all  times  examined  and  kept  in  good 
order.  The  feeding  rollers  are  so  constructed  that  while  the 
machine  is  in  the  act  of  cutting,  the  rollers  cease  to  feed,  which 
renders  the  cutting  operation  very  easy. 

Eastman's  Straw  Cutter,  with  improved  side  gearing  and 
cylindrical  knives.  This  machine  is  well  calcula'ted  for  large 
and  extensive  establishments.     Price,  fifty  to  sixty  dollars. 

Willis'  Vertical  Straw  and  Hay  Cutter.  It  is  well  constructed, 
made  of  the  best  materials,  and  of  the  best  workmanship.  Fed 
and  worked  by  one  man,  works  free  and  easy,  and  not  liable 
to  get  out  of  order.  It  will  cut  from  thirty-five  to  forty  bushels 
per  hour.  Price  thirty-five  dollars.  For  the  cost,  this  is  the 
best  machine  in  use. 

This  is  to  certify,  that  I  have  used  Willis'  improved  straw 
cutter  the  past  season,  and  consider  it  the  best  machine  for  the 
purpose  now  in  use.  NATHAN  ADAMS. 

The  Common  Dutch  Hand  Cutting  Machine,  is  one  of  those  im- 
plements in  common  use,  and  known  to  every  practical  far- 
mer ;  and  is  considered  as  good  a  machine  for  a  small  esta- 
blishment as  any  in  use.  Will  cut  from  ten  to  twenty  bushels 
per  hour. 

Safford's  Improved  and  Common  Straw  Cutter,  with  side  gear- 
ing ;  well  approved,  and  is  in  very  general  use. 


Root  Steamer.  The  above  cut  represents  a  root  steamer,  de- 
scribed in  the  Farmer's  Mas^azine,  (a  work  printed  in  Scot- 
land,) vol.  xviii.  page  74,  and'alluded  to  in  page  54  of  the  pre- 
sent work.  It  consists  of  a  boiler,  and  wooden  chest  or  box 
placed  over  it  or  near  it.  The  box  maybe  of  any  size,  and  so 
placed  as  to  be  supplied  and  emptied  by  wheel  and  hand  bar- 
rows in  the  easiest  manner,  either  by  the  end  or  top,  or  both, 
being  made  to  open.  '  If  the  box  is  made  eight  feet  by  five  and 
three  deep,  it  will  hold  as  many  potatoes  as  will  feed  fifty  cows 
for  twenty-four  hours,  and  these  may  be  steamed  in  an  hour.' 


AND   RURAL   ECONOMIST. 


33S 


Ploughs.  This  implement,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  useful 
employed  on  a  farm,  has  undergone  of  late  years  a  wonderful 
change  in  all  its  most  essential  parts,  and  has  been  greatly- 
improved.  The  cast  iron  plough  is  now  most  generally  used 
among  the  best  farmers,  and  considered  decidedly  the  best. 
Among  the  different  ploughs  now  made  of  cast  iron,  Howard's 
stands  unrivalled.  They  have  been  used  at  the  different  cat- 
tle shows  aid  pV.ughing  matches,  and  have  in  all  cases  been 
approved  by  then.  At  the  Brighton  cattle  show  at  the  exhibi- 
tion in  October,  1832,  they  received  the  piemium  of  ten  dollars, 
awarded  as  b'^in^^  the  best  plough  presented. 

[Extract  from  the  Report  of  the  Committee. 1 

'  The  ploughs  wer*^  all  of  cast  iron,  and  by  six  of  the  most 
approved  manufacturers.  The  one  by  Mr.  Charles  Howard, 
of  Hingham,  was  a  superior  implement,  considerable  improve- 
ments having  recently  been  made  by  him,  in  making  the  mould- 
board  longer  than  usual,  and  swelling  the  breast  oT  the  share, 
so  as  to  make  every  part  bear  equally ;  by  which  means  the 
plough  runs  more  true  and  steady,  is  always  free  from  carry- 
ing forward  any  earth,  and  wears  perfectly  bright ;  and  being 
made  on  mathematical  principles,  he  informed  the  committee 
he  could  make  the  different  sizes  always  the  same.' 

JOHN  PKINCE, 
EBENEZER  HEATH, 
JOHN  BAKER,  3d. 
'The  duty  of  awarding  a  premium  "to  the  plough  which 
shall  be  adjudged  best  of  all  those  used  at  the  ploughing  match," 
devolved  on  the  two  committees,  and  they  agreed  unanimously 
to  award  it  to  Mr.  Charles  Howard,  of  Hingham,  for  his  new 
and  improved  plough  ;  ten  dollars.' 

'      GORHAM  PARSONS, 

Chairman  of  Single  Teams. 
JOHN  PRINCE. 

Chairman  of  Double  Teams. 
Tice's  Plough.  This  plough  is  considered  the  next  best 
plough  to  Howard's;  it  has  taken  a  number  of  premiums  at 
the  different  ploughing  matches,  and  is  highly  approved  by  all 
those  who  have  used  them,  as  they  turn  a  good  furrow,  leaving 
the  sod  smooth  and  level. 


336 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


Side-hill  Plovgh.  This  plough,  for  which  a  premium  was 
given  at  Brighton,  is  found  to  be  a  very  great  iniprovement  on 
the  ploughs  now  in  use,  for  working  on  side-hills.  I'he  m(.uld- 
board  is  so  constructed  as  to  shift  on  each  side,  as  may  be  re- 
quired, by  turning  on  the  under  side  of  the  plough  as  the  team 
turns  at  each  end  of  the  furrow. 

Howard's  Improved  Double  Mould-board  Plough.  This  plough 
is  well  calculated  for  furrowing  out  land,  sphtting  hills,  pkiugh- 
ing  between  corn,  potato,  and  vegetable  cultivation,  to  great 
advantage.  A  great  labor  sa'ing  machine  ;  saves  nearly  all 
the  hoeing  of  corn  or  potatoes. 

Bigelow's  Plough.  This  plough  is  made  of  wrought  iron,  and 
is  in  general  use,  and  very  much  approved,  being  very  strong 
and  quite  light ;  does  the  work  well  with  little  labor. 

Morse's  Plough.  Similar  to  Bigelow's,  but  a  better  made  ar- 
ticle. • 

Cary  and  WarrerCs  common  Wood  Plough.     Of  all  sizes. 

Shovel  Plough,  and  Plough  Scrapers.  Of  all  sizes,  made  to 
order  at  the  stiortest  notice. 

Quaker  Hand  Plough.  For  gardens,  a  very  useful  implement, 
and  used  to  great  advantage  in  garden  cultivation.  Steel 
pointed. 


Chcndler^s  Improved  Double  Harrow.     This  harrow  is  so  con- 
structed as  to  be  in  two  parts,  and  joined  together  by  hinges 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  337 

on  two  straight  centre  pins,  so  that  one  part  can  be  raised  and 
swuntr  ovei'  on  the  other  half  as  occasion  requires.  Its  advan- 
tage over  the  common  harrow  is,  that  it  is  less  liable  to  be 
slopi3ed,  as  one  side  may  be  elevated  or  turned  to  a  perpendicu- 
lar position,  while  ^he  other  side  proceeds  horizontally;  it  may 
thus  be  drawn  nearer  to  rocks,  trees,  &c.  It  will  likewise  bet- 
ter adapt  itself  to  ridges,  hollows,  and  uneven  land. 

HaricotCs  Road  Harrow.     Ox  and  horse  harrows,  of  all  sizes, 
fixed  and  expanding. 


Cultivators.  Howard  and  Seaver's  patent  fixed  and  ex- 
panding cultivators,  of  all  sizes.  The  cultivator  is  an  imple- 
ment that  is  coming  into  very  general  use  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  and  serves  in  a  great  measure  in  lieu  of  hoeing.  The 
teeth  are  so  constructed  as  to  raise  the  ground,  and  leaves  it 
very  light  and  free  for  cultivation,  and  at  the  same  time  de- 
stroys the  weeds;  and  is  well  adapted  to  southern  and  western 
cultivation. 

These  cultivators  are  adapted  to  all  kinds  of  ground,  for 
running  through  rows  of  corn,  potatoes,  and  vegetables  of  all 
kinds;  and  used  in  the  cultivation  of  hops,  instead  of  the  plough 
and  hoe,  and  are  found  far  superior  to  either.  It  is  likewi'se 
well  adapted  to  harrow  in  grain  and  grass  seed ;  and  for  the 
many  uses  to  which  this  implement  may  be  applied,  it  must  be 
considered  one  of  the  most  valuable  tools  that  is  used  on  a 
farm,  and  is  coming  into  very  general  use. 

This  certifies  that  I  have  used  Seaver's  cultivator,  and  find 
it  a  much  better  article  to  work  among  corn  and  potatoes,  than 
any  machine  that  I  have  ever  tried;  it  clears  the  weeds  be- 
tw  een  the  rows  much  more  effectually  than  either  a  plough  or 
harrow,  and  saves  a  great  deal  of  labor. 

Framingham,  1834.  BENJ.  WHEELER. 

Tree  and  Bush  Pullers.     The  tree  and  bush  puller  is  one  of 

the  most  useful  and  effect- ve  implements  in  use  ;  it  is  employed 

in  clearing  land  of  under  brush,  small  trees,  barberry  and  other 

bushes.    It  is  of  iron,  of  any  size  or  dimensions  required,  some- 

29 


338 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


thing  in  the  form  of  a  rake  or  claw,  with  the  teeth  much  bent. 
The  ground  is  loosened  around  the  tree  or  bush  which  is  to  be 
removed.  The  teeth  or  claws  are  entered  on  one  side,  a  horse 
or  oxen  are  attached  by  a  chain  to  the  clav/  and  drawn  on  the 
opposite  side.  One  man  and  horse  or  one  yoke  of  oxen  will 
do  more  work  with  this  implement  than  five  men  can  do  with- 
out it  in  digging  and  clearing  land. 

Broad-Cast  Machine.  Bennet's  broad-cast  machine.  This  ma- 
chine, which  is  designed  for  sowing  broad-cast,  is  found,  when 
used  on  smooth  and  even  ground, "to  answer  a  good  purpose, 
sows  very  regular  and  even,  and  is  used  with  great  despatch. 


GauWs  Patent  Churn,  which  has  been  in  use  for  several 
years,  is  the  most  approved  and  convenient  churn  now  in  use. 
The  particular  advantage  is  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be 
worked.  From  its  quick  and  powerful  motion  it  will  produce  the 
greatest  quantity  of  butter  from  the  same  quantity  of  cream ;  is 
easy  to  clean,  and  no  way  liable  to  get  out  of  order. 

Mr.  Fessenden,  Editor  of  the  New  England  Farmer. 
Sir — In  answer  to  the  inquiry  respecting  the  Gault's  churn 
which  I  purchased  at  the  agricultural  warehouse,  I  give  it  as 
my  decided  opinion,  that  they  are  the  best  churns  I  Irnve  ever 
seen  in  use.  They  are  very  convenient  to  keep  clean,  bring 
the  butter  very  easy,  and  require  not  more  than  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes  to  do  a  churning. 

Respectfully  yours,  B.  REYNOLDS. 

Sharon,  June  15, 1829. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


339 


Stone  Churn.  A  small  article,  well  calculated  for  small  fami- 
lies. 

Tree  Brushes.  Pickering's  improved  wire  brushes  are  found 
to  be  the  most  effective  implements  for  the  purpose  of  clear- 
ing trees  and  destroying  caterpillars,  of  any  thing  that  has 
ever  been  used.  This  brush,  which  is  made  in  a  spiral  or 
taper  form,  and  about  eight  inches  long,  is  fixed  on  the  end  of 
a  pole,  the  small  part  of  the  brush  is  entered  into  the  webs,  and 
a  moderate  twist  of  two  or  three  turns  takes  the  web  and  all 
connected  with  it  clear  from  the  tree.  It  should  be  used  very 
early  in  the  morning  and  late  in  the  afternoon,  when  the  in- 
sects are  in  their  nests. 


Cheese  Presses.  Quakers'  improved  selfrgoverning  cheese- 
press.  The  press  is  so  constructed  as  to  govern  and^regulate 
itself,  in  pressing  a  cheese  of  any  size,  without  any  weights. 

LeavetVs  Improved  Cheese  Press,  which  is  so  constructed  that 


340 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


seven  or  fourteen  pounds  weight  will  press  any  common  sized 
cheese. 

Cheese  Hoops,  difTerent  sizes. 

Cheese  Cloths, 

Curd  Mills,  for  cutting  cheese  curds,  which  facilitates  the 
labor  of  the  dairy. 

Lactometers.  This  invention  is  found  to  be  of  great  utility 
and  advantage  in  testing  the  quality  of  cream  given  by  each 
cow.  It  consists  of  a  small  mahogany  frame  which  contains 
four  or  six  glass  tubes  of  ten  inche^s  in  length  and  half  an  inch 
in  diameter.  These  tubes  are  divided  into  tenths,  and  num- 
bered from  one  to  ten,  which  show  the  quantity  of  cream  given 
by  each  cow.  This  little  article  is  found  very  useful,  and  is 
much  used  in  iarsre  dairies. 


Davis'  Improved  Patent  Dirt  Scraper.  This  road  or  dirt  scra- 
per, invented  by  Shadrock  Davis,  is  used  to  great  adv^antage 
in  removing  dirt  or  gravel,  more  particularly  in  stony  lands, 
from  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  points,  which  are  similar 
to  those  of  a  plough  point.  They  enter  the  ground  very  free 
and  easy,  fill  and  discharge  themselves,  and  are  easily  managed 
by  one  horse  or  a  yoke" of  oxen.  Ploughing  is  unnecessary 
where  these  shovels  are  used. 

We  the  undersigned  hereby  certify  that  we  have  used  Davis' 
patent  plough-pointed  road  and  dirt  scraper,  and  we  consider 
it  a  great  improvement  on  the  common  road  scraper,  and  can 
with  confidence  recommend  it  to  the  public,  as  being  superior 
to  any  implement  of  the  kind  we  have  ever  used,  particularly 
in  sandy  and  stony  land,  being  so  constructed  as  to  load  itself 
without  the  use  of  ploughing,  which  is  common  in  using  the  old- 
fashion  dirt  scraper.  We  consider  it  one  of  the  greatest  labor- 
saving  implements  to  the  road-maker  that  can  be  used,  and  as 
such  we  fully  recommend  it  to  the  public. 

ABM.  WASHBURN,  Bndn-eicater. 

HENRY  S.  PACKARD,  North  Dartmouth. 

BRADFORD  HOWLAND,  South  Dartmouth. 

Beatsori's  Scarifier.  These  implements,  which  are  very  gene- 
rally used  in  Europe,  and  the  southern  states,  are  well  calcu- 
lated for  free  cultivation,  are  much  approved  in  pulverizing 
the  land,  leaving  the  soil  light  and  fine. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


341 


Pruning  Shears.  This  article,  which  was  formerly  made  by 
Wakefield  of  Gardener,  has  since  been  very  much  improved, 
and  is  now  considered  as  one  of  the  best  and  most  approved 
implements  in  use,  and  has  taken  the  place  of  the  pruning 
knife;  and  for  grape  vines  and  small  trees  is  considered  much 
the  best,  as  upo'n  an  easy  drawing  stroke  it  cuts  very  smooth 
and  fair,  without  injury  to  the  bark  or  wood. 

Scythes.  Farwell's  patent  cast  steel  concave  scythes,  which 
are  found,  from  the  peculiar  form  and  shape  in  which  they 
are  made,  to  cut  upon  the  principle  of  a  drawing  stroke,  and 
are  very  easily  ground  and  kept  in  good  order,  and  are  con- 
sidered the  best  scythes  that  are  manufactured.  From  the  pe- 
culiar construction  of  these  scythes  the  edge  is  always  left  true 
in  the  middle  of  the  scythe. 

Scythe  Rifles.  Austin's  and  Derby's  rifles  are  considered  the 
best  articles  made  for  the  purpose.  They  are  about  the  size  of 
the  common  sand  rifle,  are  cased  with  fine  emery,  and  give  a 
very  shar^)  and  good  edge.  They  are  of  very  general  use, 
and  good  substitutes  for  the  scythe  stone. 

Scythe  Snathe.  This  article,  though  in  very  common  use,  has 
been  altered  and  improved  to  great  advantage  within  a  few 
years  past.  The  snathes  manufactured  by  Vickery  Baker  for 
the  proprietors  of  the  agricultural  warehouse  are  found  to  be 
the  most  approved  and  best  calculated  to  work  free  and  easy. 
The  regular  quick  turn  at  the  heel,  and  the  strong  and  substan- 
tial iron  rings  which  secure  the  scythe  and  nibs,  are  considered 
a  great  improvement  in  those  snathes. 


Discharging  and  Revolving  Horse  Rake.     The  discharging  horse 
rake  is  a  very  plain  and  simple  operating  implement.    It  is  so 
constructed  as  to  load  itself,  by  raising  the  teeth  a  little,  and 
29* 


342 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


the  horse  drawing  it  forward  when  filled  so  far  as  to  form  a 
winrow  of  sutficient  size ;  a  slide  is  then  pressed  forward, 
which  discharges  the  hay.  By  raising  the  rake  we  pass  the 
first  winrow  and  commence  a  second,  and  thus  continue  until 
we  pass  over  the  field. 

The  revolving  rake  which  has  been  in  general  use  in  most 
parts  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  is  found  to  be  one  of 
the  most  useful  and  labor-saving  machines  now  in  use.  One 
man  and  horse,  with  a  boy  to  lead,  will  rake  on  an  average 
from  ten  to  fifteen  acres  per  day  with  ease,  and  do  the  work 
well.  They  are  coming  into  very  general  use  in  all  parts  of 
the  country,  and  will  no  doubt  in  a  few  years  supersede  the 
use  of  the  common  hand  rake. 


Harris'  Improved  Paint  Mill.     This  mill  can  be  used  by  hand, 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


343 


horse,  or  any  other  power  that  it  may  be  attached  to,  and 
works  to  great  advantage.  From  the  very  plain  and  simple 
manner  o"f  its  construction,  it  is  easily  taken  to  pieces  and 
cleaned,  and  shifted  from  oae  place  to  another,  and  used  with 
great  facility,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  best  and  most  use- 
ful mills  in  use. 

CERTIFICATES    FOR   HARRIS'    PAINT    MILL. 

I  the  undersigned  hereby  certify  that  I  have  used  Harris'  im- 
proved patent  paint  mill,  purchased  at  the  agricultural  ware- 
house, Boston,  and  consider  it  the  best  and  most  convenient 
mill  for  the  purpose  intended  of  any  I  have  ever  used.  It  is 
very  readily  cleaned  and  put  in  order. 

Hingham,  Feb.  20,  1834.  SETH  B.  GUSHING. 

I  the  undersigned  do  certify  that  I  have  used  one  of  Harris' 
paint  mills  for  grinding  a  variety  of  paint  for  about  two  years, 
and  do  not  hesitate  to  give  it  the  preference  to  every  other 
mill  I  have  ever  used.  THOMAS  B.  WESTERN. 

Ware,  May  26,  1834. 

I  hereby  certify  that  I  have  been  in  the  paint  business  for 
fifteen  years,  and  have  used  different  kinds  of  paint  mills,  and 
have  not  found  any  so  good  as  Harris'  patent  mill.  I  have 
ground  with  one  of  these  mills  one  hundred  pounds  of  lead  in 
two  hours.  I.  BARTLETT. 

I  have  used  one  of  Harris'  patent  paint  mills  for  grinding 
small  colors  for  some  time  past,  and  find  it  the  best  mill  for  the 
purpose  in  use.  GEORGE  YENDELL. 

Boston,  June  20,  1834. 

Willis'  Patent  Brass  Syringe.  This  syringe  is  intended  for 
watering  all  kinds  of  green-house  and  out-door  plants,  and  for 
preserving  grape  vines  from  mildew,  and  has  been  used  with  a 
solution  prepared  for  that  purpose,  with  great  success.  See 
the  following  recipe  : 

Take  a  pint  and  a  half  of  sulphur,  and  a  lump  of  the  best 
unslacked  lime ;  put  these  in  a  vessel  of  about  seven  gallons 
measurement;  let  the  sulphur  be  thrown  in  first,  and  the  lime 
over  it ;  then  pour  in  a  pail  of  boiling  water,  stir  it  well,  and 
let  it  stand  half  an  hour  ;  then  fill  the  vessel  with  cold  water, 
and  after  stirring  weh  again,  allow  the  whole  to  settle  ;  after 
it  has  become  settled  dip^Dut  the  clear  liquid  into  a  barrel,  and 
fill  the  barrel  with  cold  water,  and  it  is  then  fit  for  use.  You 
next  proceed  with  a  syringe  holding  about  a  pint  and  a  half, 
and  throw  the  liquid  with  it  on  the  vines  in  every  direction,  so 
as  to  completely  cover  foliasfe,  fruit,  and  wood ;  this  should  be 
particularly  done  when  the  f"ruit  is  just  forming,  and  about  one- 
third  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  may  be  continued  twice  or  thrice 
a  week  for  two  or  three  weeks.  The  whole  process  for  one  or 
two  hundred  grape  vines  need  not  exceed  half  an  hour. 


344 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


Winnowing  Machines.  Holmes'  improved  winnowing  ma- 
chine is  one  of  the  best  that  is  in  use.  It  is  very  plain  and 
simple  in  its  construction,  and  very  powerful  in  its  operation  ; 
is  well  calculated  for  cleaning  all  kinds  of  grain,  and  may  be 
applied  to  many  other  purposes,  such  as  cleaning  rice,  coffee, 
&c. 

Elliot's  patent  horizontal  mill  is  for  the  same  purpose. 
Though  smaller  and  more  compact,  is  found  equally  as  good  ; 
is  considered  as  an  improvement  on  the  common  winnowing 
machines  now  in  use.  The  motion  of  the  flyers  is  horizontal, 
and  the  sieves  have  a  forward  and  backward  motion. 

Grain  Cradles.  This  article,  like  the  scythe  snathe,  has  under- 
gone a  very  great  alteration  and  is  much  improved ;  they  are 
made  much  lighter,  the  fingers  or  arms  are  secured  by  braces 
of  suitable  sized  brass  wire,  regulated  by  screws  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  be  let  in  or  out  as  circumstances  may  recfuire.  The 
scythe  is  well  secured,  and  finished  in  a  superior  manner,  and 
made  of  the  best  cast  steel. 

Ca.st  Steel  and  Common  Axes.  This  very  common  article 
among  our  farmers  is  one  of  the  most  useful  implements  ever 
invented.  Colins  and  Morgan's  cast  steel  axes  have  been  con- 
sidered as  the  best,  and  most  approved  in  form  and  shape,  and 
are  warranted  in  every  respect  to  be  of  the  best  quality.    They 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


345 


are  finished  in  the  most  perfect  manner,  and  ground  to  a  fine 
smooth  cutting  eWge. 

Hatchets,  clea\ors,  and  many  other  tools,  made  by  different 
workmen,  and  finished  in  the  same  manner. 


Cast  Steel  Shovels  and  Spades.  Ames''  improved  Cast  Steel  hack 
Strapped  Shovels  and  Spades  are  very  superior  in  every  re- 
spect to  the  common  iron  and  steel  shovels.  They  wear  much 
longer,  continue  brighter,  more  sharp,  and  are  used  with  great 
ease.  This  article,  though  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  common 
implements  in  use,  has  been  much  improved.  Also  a  great 
variety  of  other  kinds  of  spades  and  shovels,  made  by  different 
manufacturers.    Irish  shovels  and  spades  with  long  handles. 


Hoes.  Great  improvement  has  been  made  in  this  article  of 
late.  A  great  variety  of  hoes  are  now  manufactured,  of  diffe- 
rent forms.  Those  made  by  Morgan  are  considered  the  best 
now  in  use  ;  they  are  made  of  the  best  of  steel,  crooked  neck, 
and  socket  handles. 

The  Prong  or  Potato  Hoe  is  one  of  the  most  useful,  simple, 
and  improved  implements  that  is  employed.  It  was  invent- 
ed and  used  in  the  first  instance  for  digging  potatoes ;  it  was 
afterwards  found  as  useful  for  planting  as  for  digging  them, 
and  likewise  is  used  for  almost  every  purpose  for  which  a  hoe 
has  been  used  ;  and  they  are  employed  to  the  greatest  possible 
advantage  in  stony  or  rocky  lands,  and  in  planting  new  land ; 
they  are  likewise  used  as  a  garden  hoe,  being  one  of  the  best 
implements  a  gardener  can  have  in  use,  or  in  working  between 
rows  of  vegetables,  digging  round  young  trees,  loosening  the 
ground,  &c. 


346 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


Lord  Vernon's  New  T'lVage  Hoe.  The  utility  of  this  garden 
hoe  will  be  duly  appreciated  upon  trial.  Few  gardeners  or 
nursery  men  employed  in  gardening  will  be  without  them 
when  once  they  have  been  used.  They  are  employed  to  great 
advantage  in  deep  tillage  ;  in  many  cases  they  are  superior  to 
digging  or  forking  the  land. 

^Bill-Hook.  This  article  is  much  used  in  England  in  prun- 
ing and  clearing  brush,  and  is  a  good  tool  as  a  substitute 
for  the  pruning  saw  and  chisel,  and  can  be  used  with  more  ex- 
pedition. 

Glass  Covers  for  Plants.  These  covers  are  used  for  cover- 
ing' plants — protecting  them  in  their  grow^th  and  preventing 
mfldew. 


Garden  and  Field  Rollers.  E.  Phinney,  Esq.,  of  Lexington, 
has  made  great  and  successful  use  of  the  roller  for  grass  land, 
and  has  given  a  description  and  dimensions  of  what  he  con- 
siders the  most  convenient  and  best  proportion,  viz. :  The  rol- 
lers to  be  six  feet  in  length  and  five  feet  in  diameter,  placed  on 
an  iron  axle  of  the  same  length  by  one  inch  and  a  half  in  di- 
ameter ;  the  roller  to  be  made  of  oak  or  any  hard  w^ood  plank, 
each  plank  to  be  about  four  inches  wide  and  two  and  a  half 
thick  ;  the  roller  is  made  in  tw^o  parts,  of  three  feet  each  ;  each 
end  of  the  axle  is  secured  in  a  frame  which  is  made  of  joist,  of 
a  suitable  size  to  receive  the  end  of  the  axle;  to  this  frame  is 
attached  the  shafts  in  which  the  horse  is,  or  a  tongue  to  which 
the  oxen  are  attached,  which  completes  the  rollers". 

Mr.  Phinney  says  this  sized  roller  presents  the  following 
among  other  advantages,  viz. :  If  the  ground  is  very  mellow 
the  large  sized  roller  "presses  the  smalt  stones  more  directly 
into  the  ground  and  renders  the  surface  more  regular  and 
even ;  the  large  roller  also  moves  easier,  and  the  weight  fall- 
ing more  directly  upon  the  small  stones,  they  are,  as  he  has  be- 
fore observed,  better  pressed  into  the  earth,  the  lumps  of  earth 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


347 


more  finely  broken,  and  the  surface  left  much  smoother.  For 
garden  rollers  or  gravel  walks  the  stone  or  iron  rollers  are 
prepared,  of  different  sizes. 

Grass  and  Edging  Shears.  These  shears  are  for  the  purpose 
of  edging  banks  and  slopes,  for  trimming  and  keeping  the 
banks"  in  good  order,  and  the  oftener  theyare  used  the  more 
thrifty  and  thick  the  grass  will  grow. 


Corn  Shelter ,  A  corn  sheller  is  one  of  the  most  convenient 
and  labor-saving  implements  that  the  practical  farmer  has  in 
use.  Various  machines  for  this  purpose  have  been  invented. 
The  most  improved  and  best  adapted  for  common  use  are  those 
of  Harrison,  with  the  patent  vertical  wheel.  It  can  be  employed 
in  all  cases  for  large  or  small  sized  ears.  It  is  very  simple  in 
its  construction  and  durable  in  its  operation,  and  no  way  liable 
to  get  out  of  order  ;  one  man  can  work  it  to  good  advantage, 
though  a  man  to  turn  and  a  boy  to  feed  it  works  it  much  better 
than  one  alone.  In  this  way  it  will  shell  ten  to  twelve  bushels 
per  hour.  They  are  so  light  and  portable  as  to  be  easily  re- 
moved from  place  to  place,  and  one  machine  will  serve  for 
several  families,  or  even  the  inhabitants  of  a  small  town. 


348 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


Willis''  Stationary  Horse  Power^  and  Corn  Cracker  Attached, 
Corn  and  Cob  Cracker.  This  mill,  which  is  calculated  for 
grinding  cob  and  corn  together,  is  found  to  make  the  best  pro- 
vender and  the  most  economical  food  for  fattening  hogs  or 
horses.  It  is  so  constructed  as  to  be  used  with  a  common  grist 
mill  or  separate,  as  circumstances  may  require,  and  may  be 
worked  by  a  single  horse  or  any  other  power.  From  thirty  to 
forty  bushels  per  hoar  have  been  ground  in  these  mills. 


Willis^   and   Haleh   improved   Portable   Horse   Power,    may   be 
worked  by  one  or  more  horses,  mules,  or  oxen.     As  every 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


349 


farmer  keeps  more  or  less  of  these  animals,  no  additional  ex- 
pense is  required  in  working  these  powers.  They  are  calcu- 
lated to  propel  any  kind  of  machinery  or  agricultural  imple- 
ments in  common  use,  such  as  thrashing  machines,  cider  mills, 
corn  and  cob  mills,  straw  and  hay  cutters,  corn  shellers, 
grindstones,  winnowing  machines,  6cc. ;  they  are  likewise  well 
adapted  for  machine  shops,  in  working  the  circular  or  web 
saw,  turning  lathes,  or  any  machinery  where  power  is  requir- 
ed. The  alterations  and  improvements  made  in  this  power 
render  it  very  simple  in  its  construction  and  easy  in  its  ope- 
ration, and  not  liable  to  get  out  of  order  when  properly  made. 
They  occupy  but  the  small  space  of  nine  feet  by  two,  and  are 
easily  removed ;  they  are  truly  labor-saving  machines,  and  must 
come  into  general  use  with  farmers  and  mechanics.  They  are 
likewise  well  adapted  for  the  use  of  plantations,  being  calcu- 
lated for  working  saw  or  roller  gins,  and  other  purposes  to 
which  they  may  oe  applied ;  they  are  so  portable  as  to  be  trans- 
ported at  a  moderate  expense,  and  may  be  put  in  operation  by 
any  person  of  common  capacity. 

Bark  or  Plaster  Mills.  The  Troy  bark  and  plaster  mills. 
These  mills  are  altered  and  much  improved  from  the  old-fash- 
ioned mill  which  has  been  in  use  for  many  years. 

Family  Hand  Mills.  Willis'  improved  patent  family  or  plan- 
tation mill,  calculated  for  grinding  corn,  coffee,  &c.,  has  a 
small  balance  wheel  w^hich  regulates  its  operation  and  causes 
it  to  work  free  and  easy. 


Grindstones  on  Friction  Rollers.  Grindstones  of  different  sizes 
hung  on  friction  rollers  and  moved  with  a  foot  treader,  are  found 
to  be  a  great  improvement  on  the  present  mode  of  hanging 


350 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


grindstones.  The  ease  with  which  they  move  upon  the  rollers 
renders  them  very  easy  to  turn  with  the  foot,  by  which  the  labor 
of  one  man  is  saved  ;  and  the  person  in  the  act  of  grinding  can 
govern  the  stone  more  to  his  mind  by  having  the  complete 
control  of  his  work.  Stones  hung  in  this  manner  are  com- 
ing daily  more  in  use,  and  wherever  used  give  universal  satis- 
faction. The  rollers  can  be  attached  to  stones  hung  in  the 
common  way. 

Hay  Knives.  These  knives  are  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  the 
hay  in  the  mow,  and  are  a  desirable  article  for  that  purpose,  and 
almost  indispensable  where  hay  is  stacked  in  the  yard ;  and  the 
farmer  would  wish  to  spend  his  hay  to  the  best  advantage. 

Peat  Knives,  for  cutting  peat ;  an  article  which  is  daily 
increasing  in  use  for  fuel,  and  in  many  parts  of  our  country  is 
found  in  great  abundance,  and  if  cut  at  a  suitable  season  of 
the  year,  is  used  to  good  advantage. 

Pomace  Knives.  These  knives  are  almost  indispensable  in  a 
cider  country. 

Ditching  Knives,  for  ditching  Low  Lands. 

Cast  Steel  Edging  and  Trimming  Knives.  These  knives  are 
calculated  for  edging  and  trimming  grass-plats,  borders,  fee; 
are  found  to  be  one  of  the  most  convenient  tools  a  gardener 
can  have  in  use. 


KendalVs  Improved  Rotary  Pump.  This  pump,  which  is  a 
great  improvement  upon  the  various  rotary  pumps  now  in 
use,  is  very  plain  and  simple  in  its  construction,  and  no  way 
liable  to  get  out  of  order;  but  works  with  great  facility,  throws 
a  constant  and  regular  stream  by  a  very  simple  operation 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


351 


of  a  crank,  and  is  calculated  for  all  kinds  of  domestic  purpo- 
ses, as  well  as  for  green-houses,  factories,  &;c.  There  are 
different  sizes  of  these  pumps  manufactured,  which  are  so  con- 
structed as  to  answer  as  forcing  pumps  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
carry  water  to  any  distance,  and  are  a  good  substitute  for  an 
ensine. 


Maggys  Thrashing  Machine  and  Horse  Power.  This  machine, 
mvented  by  David  Fla^g,  of  New  York,  is  very  simple  in  its 
construction,  and  not  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  and  is  in  very 
general  use  in  the  western  part  of  the  state  of  New  York. 

Zinc  Hollow  Ware,  either  for  culinary  use  or  the  dairy,  by 
wholesale  or  retail,  may  be  had  at  the  agricultural  warehouse. 


352 


THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


The  proprietor  is  sole  agent  for  vending  the  above  wares.  The 
prices  of  this  ware  will,  upon  examination,  be  found  not  to 
vary  materially  from  that  of  tin  and  iron,  yet  as  durable  as 
iron,  easily  cleansed,  not  subject  to  rust,  giving  the  article 
cooked  or  kept  in  it  no  unpleasant  taste,  and  containing  in 
itself  no  poison  like  copper,  brass,  and  lead. 

Zinc  kettles  will  be  found  to  cook  rice,  hominy,  and  all  kinds 
of  sweetmeats,  better  than  any  other  kind  of  metal,  neither 
discoloring  nor  varying  the  flavor  of  the  substance  cooked; 
and  for  these  purposes,  it  will  ere  long  be  substituted  for  brass 
and  copper,  to  avoid  the  poisonous  corrosions  of  those  metals. 

Zinc  pans,  for  the  dairy,  will  be  found  by  the  dairy-woman 
an  object  worthy  of  her  attention,  from  these  considerations: 
that  they  will  greatly  outlast  any  other  pans,  that  the  same 
size  pans  will  produce  one-sixth  more  cream  or  butter,  and  of 
a  superior  flavor;  they  are  more  easily  cleansed,  and  will  keep 
milk  sweet  longer  by  a  number  of  hours.  Zinc  tubs  and  firkins 
will  keep  butter  sweet  several  days  longer  in  hot  weather  than 
those  of  wood  or  other  kinds  of  metal.  This  has  been  a  sub- 
ject of  experiment,  and  the  results  safely  warrant  the  state- 
ment. Hence  families  who  prefer  sweet  butter  to  rancid,  will 
do  well  to  avail  themselves  of  these  tubs,  for  keeping  theix  but- 
ter sweet  and  retaining  its  flavor. 


Scott  Keith  and  Co.'s  Improved  Cast  Iron  Pumn.  This  pump  was 
invented  by  Jesse  Reed,  of  Bridgewater,  and  proves  to  be  the 
most  simple  and  best  constructed  pump  that  is  in  use,  being 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST. 


353 


made  of  cast  iron,  which  is  considered  the  best  metal  which  wa- 
ter can  pass  through ;  is  very  durable  and  clieap.  It  has  metal 
boxes  so  constructed,  that  in  raising  the  handle  the  lower  box 
or  valve  is  opened,  and  the  water  let  off,  which  prevents  its 
freezing.  They  are  so  plain  and  simple  in  their  construction, 
that  they  can  be  put  up  or  taken  down  by  any  common  work- 
man, and  no  way  liable  to  get  out  of  order.  They  are  attached 
to  wooden  logs  or  lead  pipes,  and  are  well  calcidated  for  all 
domestic  purposes. 


Cattle  Chains.  These  chains  have  of  late  been  introduced  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  cattle  to  the  stall — are  found  to  be  the 
safest  and  most  convenient  mode  of  fastening  cows  and  oxen 
in  the  stanchion.  They  consist  of  a  chain  which  passes  round 
the  animal's  neck,  and  by  a  ring  attached  to  the  stall  plays 
freely  up  and  down,  and  leaves  the  animal  at  hberty  to  lie 
down  or  rise  at  pleasure,  and  keeps  him  perfectly  secure. 


Brooks'  Patent  Silk  Spinning  Machine.     Brooks'  silk  spinning 
and  reeling  machine,  which  was  invented  by  himself,  is  found 
30* 


354 


THE    COBIPLETE    FARMER 


to  be  a  very  simple  and  easy  operating  machine,  and  yet  one 
of  the  most  perfect  that  has  been  invented  for  the  purpose  of 
reeling  and  twisting  silk  from  the  cocoons,  and  manufacturing 
it  into  sewing  silk.  By  the  different  arrangements  of  this  ma- 
chine, it  will  operate  upon  a  single  or  double  thread,  as  may- 
be required,  and  prepare  it  for  twisting  or  weaving.  Experi- 
ence has  fully  proved,  that  by  uniting  the  filaments  of  silk  as 
they  are  drawn  from  the  cocoons,  wet  in  their  natural  gluti- 
nous substance,  before  they  dry,  the  thread  is  more  firm, 
smooth,  and  strong.  The  simplicity  of  the  machine,  and  the 
very  easy  way  in  which  it  is  used,  bripg  it  within  the  com- 
prehension and  capacity  of  any  person  to  use  it.  Mr.  Brooks 
has  received  a  premium  for  his  invention  from  several  socie- 
ties, and  of  late  a  premium  and  medal  from  the  Scott's  legacy, 
in  Philadelphia. 

Liglitning  Rods  and  Glass  Blocks.  From  the  repeated  and 
almost  daily  occurrences  which  happen  from  the  effect  of 
lightning,  occasioning  death  and  destruction  of  much  proper- 
ty, it  is  a  matter  of  surprise  that  every  farmer  does  not  have 
attached  to  his  dwelling-house  and  barn  a  lightning  rod,  and 
guarded  in  the  best  possible  manner,  which  is  done  by  passing 
the  rod  through  glass  blocks  which  are  constructed  for  the 
purpose. 


Ox  Yokes.  Many  improvements  have  been  made  in  this  ar- 
ticle, and  even  in  the  bows  and  keys. 

Brass  and  Composition  Balls.  These  balls  are  not  only  orna- 
mental, but  are  very  useful  in  preventing  the  animal  from 
hooking,  or  being  in  other  respects  mischievous  and  trouble- 
some. They  have  been  in  very  general  use,  and  add  much  to 
the  appearance  of  the  animal. 


Pomroy's   Patent  Spring  Staple,   for   securing   horses.      The 
improvement  in  this  staple  is  such  that  if  the  horse  is  cast,  or 


AND    RURAL   ECONOMIST.  355 

in  any  way  entangled,  he  can  disengage  and  free  himself. 
Many  fine  and  valuable  horses  are  lost  for  the  want  of  this 
self-regulating  staple. 


Willis'  Improved  Seed  Sower.  This  machine,  which  was  de- 
signed in  the  first  instance  for  sowing  small  seed  in  gardens, 
is  found  on  using  to  sow  large  as  well  as  small  see'd  to  ad- 
vantage, and  proves  to  be  one  of  the  best  field  and  garden  im- 
plements in  use.  It  is  particularly  adapted  for  sowing  ruta 
baga,  turnip,  6cc.  The  saving  of  seed  in  the  use  of  this  imple- 
ment is  quite  sufficient  to  pay  the  cost  of  it  in  one  season,  and 
the  seed  is  sown  more  regular  and  even. 

Harden^s  Improved  Seed  Solving  Machine.  This  is  one  of  the 
best  labor-saving  machines  in  iise,  calculated  for  sowing  small 
seeds  in  the  field  or  garden. 

Carriage  Lifter,  or  levers,  for  raising  wagons,  carts,  or  car- 
riages of  all  kinds,  or  for  raising  loads,  pressing  goods,  &c. 
Being  a  small  handy  implement,  it  may  be  taken  in  a  carriage 
in  travjlUng,  and  found  very  convenient  and  handy  for  the 
purpose.  Carriage  winches  and  wrenches  are  liJ^wise  very 
handy  and  convenient  travelling  companions,  and  should  al- 
ways be  at  hand."" 

Apple  Parer.  The  apple  paring  machine  is  used  to  great  ad- 
vantage in  that  part  of  the  country  where  much  attention  is 
given  to  paring  and  drying  apples  for  market.  This  is  a  small 
simple  machine,  which  is  very  convenient  for  the  use  it  is  de- 
signed for,  and  is  as  much  of  a  time  and  labor-saving  machine 
as  those  which  are  more  expensive  and  complicated. 

Patent  Curry -Combs,  and  Brass  Teeth  Cattle  Cards.  Patent 
and  common  curry-combs,  and  cards  with  brass  teeth.  No 
stock  farm  should  ever  be  kept  without  a  good  supply  of  these 
articles,  and  constant  use  being  made  of  them. 

Straw  Splitters.  This  little  implement,  which  is  plain  and 
simple  in  its  construction,  is  one  of  the  most  useful  implements, 
and  should  be  introduced  and  used  in  every  family,  in  town 
and  country. 


356  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

Saw  and  Roller  Gins.  Cotton  gins  have  become  the  indis- 
pensable articles  of  the  cotton  planter.  A  new  roller  gin  has 
been  invented  by  a  Mr.  Whittemore,  and  is  coming  into  very 
general  use;  it  is  readily  worked  by  hand  or  horse  power. 

Stamps,  of  all  descriptions,  for  marking  and  branding  the  far- 
mer's tools,  of  which  every  farmer  who'is  in  the  habit  of  lend- 
ing and  accommodating  his  neighbors  and  friends,  as  all  farmers 
are  and  must  be,  should  have  every  tool  marked  with  his  name. 
This  prevents  the  loss  of  many  tools,  and  much  inquiry  and 
trojble  among  neighbors. 

Garden  Reels  and  Lines.  Very  hand}''  and  convenient  imple- 
ments for  the  gardener  in  laying  out  his  borders,  beds,  alleys, 
&c. 

Pruning  Chisels  and  Saws.  Of  all  the  implements  that  are 
used  on  the  farm  there  are  none  used  to  so  much  profit  and 
advantage  as  the  pruning  knife  and  saw.  Too  m.any  of  our 
fruit  and  ornamental  trees  are  suffered  to  run  to  wood;  from 
this  circumstance  we  have  less  and  poorer  fruit. 

Manure  and  Hay  Fork.  No  one  implement  has  undergone  so 
thorough  an  investigation  and  improvement  as  the  hay  and 
manure  fork.  Since  the  first  introduction  or  use  of  these  arti- 
cles, great  improvement  has  been  made  in  the  form  of  them, 
and  the  quality  of  steel  from  which  they  are  made.  Among 
the  most  approved  manure  forks  in  use  are  those  of  Willis, 
cast  steel,  manufactured  from  one  piece,  in  which  no  welding 
is  necessary.  These  forks  have  been  in  common  use  for  many 
years.  They  are  so  well  tempered  as  to  have  that  degree  of 
elasticity  that  they  discharge  the  manure  with  the  g'reatest 
ease ;  they  are  in  no  way  liable  to  clog  or  foul,  and  are  very 
strong  and  durable.  Unfortunately  for"  this  article,  there  has 
been  great  Quantities  of  a  very  inferior  kind  made  and  sold  in 
the  form  and  shape  of  the  true  patent  ones,  which  havmg  been 
made  of  very  poor  steel  and  slighted  in  the  manufacturi'ng  of 
them,  has  injured  the  use  of  this  very  useful  and  almost  indis- 
pensable article. 

Budding  and  Pruning  Knives.  A  great  variety  of  budding 
and  pruning  knives  are  now  used,  of  various  forms  and  shapes : 
some  very  superior  ones. 

Fruit  Shears.  Those  shears  which  are  attached  to  a  pole  are 
for  the  purpose  of  taking  off  fruit  from  the  extreme  branches 
of  trees,  or  such  parts  as  are  not  to  be  come  at  conveniently  in 
any  other  way.  For  this  purpose  they  are  found  to  be  very 
convenient  and  useful ;  they  are  likewise  used  for  taking  off 
scions,  &c. 

Tree  Scrapers.  This  article,  which  is  indispensable  in  keeping 
trees  in  good  order,  should  be  used  every  season  in  removing 
the  dry  and  hard  bark  from  trees,  to  increase  a  quick  and 
vigorous  growth,  and  keep  them  in  full  bearing. 

Transplanting  Trowels  and  Forks. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  357 

Post  Augers  and  Post  Axes.  Those  two  implements  are  used 
for  one  and  the  same  purpose,  that  of  mortising  posts. 

Pickaxe.  A  common  but  very  useful  article,  on  an  im- 
proved plan. 

Post  Spoons.  "With  this  implement  and  a  common  crow-bar, 
posts  are  set  with  great  advantage  and  expedition. 

Stable  Door  Hasps,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  barn  or  stable 
doors,  gates,  fee. 

Farnhani's  Improved  Patent  Grater  Cider  Mill.  Ihe  improve- 
ment in  this  mill  is  in  grinding,  or  rather  grating  the  apples 
very  fine,  so  that  all  the'juice  is  pressed  out ;  and  produces  a 
greater  quantity  of  liquor  from  the  same  quantity  of  pomace. 
The  above  mills  are  in  extensive  operation,  and  very  much  ap- 
proved of.  They  will  grind  two  bushels  of  apples  per  minute, 
and  are  in  no  way  liable  to  get  out  of  order. 

With  little  alteration  it  can  be  made  one  of  the  best  vegetable 
grinders  for  grinding  or  cutting  food  for  animals. 

Cider  Presses.  Presses  of  different  descriptions  to  corres- 
pond with  the  cider  mills. 

Vegetable  Cutter.  Leavitt's  improved  patent  vegetable  cutter, 
for  cutting  ruta  baga,  mangel-wurtzel,  turnips,"  &c.  Cutting 
those  kinds  of  vegetables  is  found  to  be  very  beneficial  to  ani- 
mals, particularly  to  milch  cows,  not  only  by  increasing  the 
quantity,  but  the  quality  of  the  milk.  It  is  a  very  perfect  and 
complete  machine  for  the  purpose. 

Willis''  Improved  Family  Sausage  Filler.  This  machine,  which 
is  intended  for  filling  sausages,  is  one  of  the  most  convenient 
and  expeditious  things  for  the  purpose  that  can  be  conceived 
of.  One  man  will  do'  more  in  preparing  and  filhng  sausages 
with  this  machine,  than  ten  men  can  in  the  old  manner  of  work- 
inor  them. 


Fessendenh  Patent  Lamp  Boiler  and  Tea-kettle.  The  lamp  ap- 
paratus for  heating  water,  &c.  here  represented,  has  been 
found  very  useful  in  small  families,  and  such  persons  as  may 
wish  to  prepare  tea  or  cofiee  drink,  cook  eggs,  oysters,  &c.,  in 


358  THE  COMPLETE  FARBIER 

their  own  apartments,  without  the  trouble  or  inconvenience 
of  a  wood  or  coal  fire.  It  is  very  convenient  in  public  houses, 
coffee-houses,  and  other  places  where  it  is  wished  to  keep  any 
hot  liquid  constantly  on  hand.  Besides  answering  all  the  pur- 
poses of  what  is  called  the  nurse  lamp,  it  may  be  made  to  boil 
from  one  pint  to  a  gallon  of  water,  by  a  method  which  in  many 
cases  will  be  found  the  most  economical  and  expeditious  w^hich 
can  be  devised. 

Description  of  the  Cut. — [A]  Sheet  iron  case,  in  which  the 
tea-kettle,  ooiler,  &c.  may  be  placed,  removable  at  pleasure. 
It  has  a  hole  in  the  bottom  to  admit  the  heat  of  the  lamp  to 
pervade  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  boiler.  [B]  Lamp  with 
five  or  six  wicks,  more  or  less,  placed  wiien  in  use  under  said 
case.  [C]  Pan  or  boiler,  which,  when  in  use,  is  placed  in  the 
sheet  iron  case.  [D]  Tea-kettle  in  its  place  for  boiling.  [E] 
A  small  sheet  iron  cylinder,  a  little  tapering,  so  as  to  form  the 
frustrum  of  a  hollow  cone.  This  is  occasionally  placed  within 
the  case,  so  as  to  surround  the  hole  in  its  bottom,  in  order  to 
place  upon  it  a  coffee-pot,  tea-pot,  flask,  tin  porringer,  or  other 
small  vessel  in  which  it  may  be  wished  to  heat  water. 

Ploughshares.  Wrought  and  cast  iron  ploughshares  of  all 
sizes,  fitted  and  prepared  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  at  all 
times  ready  and  fit  for  immediate  use. 

Patent  and  Common  Horse  Phlemes,  The  patent  phlemes  are 
a  very  great  improvement  on  the  common  kind,  and  in  the 
hands  of  an  experienced  and  careful  person  is  used  with  per- 
fect safety,  and  is  very  effectual  in  its  operation. 

Carter's  Patent  Guidebourd.  Made  by  branding  the  letters 
and  figures  on  boards  ;  when  done  in  this  manner,  are  more 
legible" and  durable  than  the  usual  mode  of  painting.  A  full 
se"t  of  letters  and  figures  will  be  furnished,  calculated  to  an- 
swer all  the  purposes  for  one  towm. 

Directions  for  using  the  Brands. — The  brands  are  to  be  heat- 
ed to  a  cherry  red,  then  applied  to  the  board,  and  guided  by  a 
straight  piece  tacked  on  to  keep  them  in  a  line.  The  board  is 
then  "to  be  hghtly  planed  over,  and  the  white  lead  applied  in 
the  usual  manner  with  a  brush.  The  black  letters  will  not 
lose  their  brightness,  for  the  durability  of  charcoal  is  well 
known.  STANLEY  CARTER. 

Bee-Hives.  Dr.  Thacher's  improved  bee-hive,  for  affording 
the  most  effectual  security  against  the  ravages  of  the  bee-moth, 
and  keeping  the  bees  dry  and  comfortable  during  winter. 

Apparatus  for  transferring  Bees.  Dr.  Barbour's  apparatus  for 
removing  bees  with  great  facility  from  one  hive  to  another, 
without  destroying  the  bees,  injuring  the  honey  or  the  young 
bees  that  are  in  the  cells,  as  they  can  be  transferred  to  the 
new  bee-hive  without  difficulty,  and  the  colony  increased  if 
desired. 

Hay  Presses.  Since  bundle  hay  has  become  an  article  of 
great  merchandise,  much  use  is  made  of  the  hay  press.     There 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  359 

is  great  improvement  in  this  article,  by  which  hay  is  pressed 
much  closer  and  harder. 

HalVs  Patent  Hay  Rakes.  These  rakes  are  made  in  a  very 
superior  manner  to  any  thing  of  the  kind  we  have  ever  seen, 
and  there  is  as  much  improvement  made  in  this  article  as  any 
one  article  in  use. 


FARMER'S    CALENDAR 


The  following  calendar  is  intended  merely  as  an  asrricultu- 
ral  prompter,  noting  that  certain  kinds  of  work  should  be  per- 
formed about  the  time  in  the  year  specified  at  the  head  of  each 
article.  The  figures  refer  to  the  pages  in  this  little  volume,  in 
which  farther  directions  may  be  found  relative  to  the  opera- 
tions which  the  season  in  general  demands  from  the  diligent, 
correct,  and  careful  cultivator. 

'  At  tho  beginriing  of  every  month,  a  good  farmer,  whether 
he  has  or  has  not  a  book  of  this  sort,  is  obliged  to  reflect  on 
the  work  he  has  to  perform  in  that  month :  he  ought  to  foresee 
the  whole  at  once,  or  it  is  impossible  that  he  should  make  due 
provision  for  its  performance.  I  leave  it  to  any  one  to  judge, 
if  such  an  esi'mate  of  monthly  business  can  be  gained  so  easi- 
ly without  such  an  assistance  to  the  memory  a^  is  afforded  by 
such  a  calendar ;  and  even  if  such  a  work  but  once  in  a  year 
gives  intimation  of  some  important  work  which  might  other- 
wise have  been  forgotten,  its  worth  must  be  acknowtedged.'* 

The  directions  in  the  following  pages  are  intended  for  the 
New  England  states,  or  about  the'latitude  of  forty-two  degrees 
north,  and  the  vicinity,  or  a  small  elevation  above  the  sea. 
Allowance,  however,  siiould  be  made  for  height  above  the  sea, 
as  well  as  for  situation  north  or  south  of  any  particular  lati- 
tude ;  but  we  believe  it  not  possible  to  state  with  any  near  ap- 
proach to  precision  what  such  allowance  should  be.  The  na- 
ture of  the  soil,  the  aspect,  the  exposure,  the  forwardness  or 
backwardness,  or  what  may  be  styled  the  general  character 
of  the  season,  are  all  to  be  regarded.  We  will,  therefore,  not 
claim  precision,  where  accuracy  is  not  attainable.  '  Calen- 
dars,' as  Loudon  has  well  observed,  '  should  be  considered  as 
remembrancers,  never  as  directories.' 

JANUARY. 

Stock.  If  cattle  are  fed  with  straw,  it  should  be  done  with 
necessary  attentions  and  limitations.  The  celebrated  Arthur 
Young  observed,  that  '  the  best  farmers  in  Norfolk  are  gene- 

*  Young's  British  Farmer's  Calendar. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  361 

rally  agreed  that  cattle  should  eat  no  straw,  unless  it  be  cut  in- 
to chaff  mixed  with  hay ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  they  should 
be  fed  with  something  better,  and  have  the  straw  thrown  under 
them  to  be  trodden  into  dung:'  and  I  am  much  inclined  to  be- 
lieve, that  in  most,  if  not  in  all  cases,  this  maxim  will  prove  a 
just  one.  See  that  your  cows  are  of  the  best  breed.  Page  40. 
Give  them  roots  as  well  as  hay,  and  they  will  give  you  more 
than  an  equivalent  in  milk  for  their  extra  keep.  Pages  42,  43. 
Provide  pure  water  for  your  milch  cows,  and  not  oblige  them 
to  go  a  mile,  more  or  less,  after  it,  manuring  the  highway,  and 
running  the  gauntlet  of  dogs,  teams,  the  horse  and  his  rider, 
the  sleigh  and  its  driver,  with  more  annoyances  than  Buona- 
parte met  with  in  his  retreat  from  Moscow.  See  also  that  the 
master-beasts  do  not  tyrannize  over  their  weaker  brethren, 
and  if  any  are  inclined  to  domineer,  take  them  into  close  custo- 
dy, and  deprive  them  of  the  liberty  of  the  yard,  till  they  will 
give  indemnity  for  the  past,  and  security  for  the  future.  Cut 
or  chaff  your  hay,  straw,  corn-tops,  bottoms,  &c.,  with  one  of 
Wiihs'  or  some  other  straw  cutter,  to  be  found  at  Newell's 
agricultural  warehouse,  No.  52,  North  Market  street,  Boston, 
or  some  other  place.  You  may  also  make  use  of  colonel  Jaques' 
mixture,  (page  51,)  without  charge  for  the  prescription.  If  you 
give  your  cows  good  hay,  roots,  and  comfortable  lodging,  you 
may  make  as  good  butter  in  winter  as  in  summer,  and  become 
rich  by  sending  to  market  the  product  of  your  dairy.  Pages 
55,  89,  90,  &c. 

FEBRUARY. 

Attend  particularly  to  cows  which  have  calved,  or  are  about 
to  calve,  as  well  as  to  their  offspring.  You  know,  or  should 
know,  what  time  your  cows  may  be  expected  to  produce  their 
young,  by  means  pointed  out  page  45,  where  you  may  find  a 
recipe  for  those  cows  which  need  to  be  doctored,  that  they  may 
stop  giving  milk.  You  will  find  observations  on  rearing  and 
fattening  calves,  pages  57,  &c.  to  page  64.  Your  ewes  and 
lambs  will  now  require  that  care  and  attention  which  is  indis- 
pensable to  make  sheep  husbandry  profitable.  Page  222.  The 
way  to  doctor  lambs  to  advantage  is  to  give  good  food,  and  a 
plenty  of  it,  to  their  mothers.  Half  a  gill  of  Indian  corn  a  day 
to  each  ewe  before  yeaning,  and  about  two  quarts  per  day  of 
potatoes,  turnips,  or  other  roots,  when  they  have  lambs  to 
nurse,  will  make  your  sheep  and  lambs  healthy,  as  well  as 
their  owner  wealthy.  But  if  you  half  starve  your  sheep,  you 
will  quite  kill  your  lambs.  You  will  continue  to  cut,  split,  and 
pile  wood  in  your  wood-house,  till  you  have  enough  to  last 
at  least  two  years.  It  is  very  bad  economy  to  be  obliged  to 
leave  your  work  in  haying  or  harvesting  to  draw  every  now 
and  then  ahttle  greenwood  to  cook  with,  which  is  about  as  fit 
for  that  purpose  as  a  brickbat  for  a  pincushion,  or  a  lump  of 
ice  for  a  warming-pan. 
31 


362  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 


You  may  sow  grass  seed  either  as  soon  as  the  snow  is  off 
the  ground,  or,  as  some  say,  in  August  or  September.  You  may 
seelhe  question  relative  to  the  time  for  this  purpose  discussed, 
pages  25,  26.  Be  sure  to  use  seed  enough,  say  about  twelve 
pounds  of  clover  and  one  peck  of  herd's  grass  [timothy]  to  the 
acre.  Page  26.  If  you  did  not  sow  grass  seed  in  autumn  with 
winter  grain,  you  may  now  sow  it,  and  even  harrow  it  in. 
Though  a  few  plants  will  be  torn  up,  the  grain  will  on  the  whole 
receive  benefit  from  being  harrowed  in  the  spring.  Before  the 
spring  work  presses  hard  upon  you,  it  will  be  well  to  employ 
your  boys  under  your  superintendence  to  train  your  steers  or 
calves  and  colts  to  the  yoke,  saddle,  or  harness,  for  which  you 
may  see  some  excellent  directions  by  Mr.  James  Walker,  page 
66.  Top-dress  winter  grain.  Top-dressings  should  not  be 
used  in  the  fall  for  winter  grain,  because  they  would  be  apt  to 
make  the  young  plants  come  forward  too  fast,  and  be  the  more 
liable  to  be  winter-killed.  Page  187.  Attend  to  fences,  page 
214,  and  to  drains.  Page  296.  By  often  changing  the  direc- 
tion of  your  water-courses,  you  may  render  your  mowing  even, 
and  prevent  one  part  from  becoming  too  rank  and  lodging  be- 
fore the  other  part  is  fit  to  cut. 


Ploughvng.  Light  sandy  soils  had  better  be  ploughed  in  the 
spring,  and  not  late  in  autumn,  lest  they  become  too  porous 
and  are  washed  away  by  the  rains  and  floods  of  fall  and 
winter.  For  general  rules  on  this  subject,  see  page  281,  &c. 
It  is  best  to  sow  spring  wheat  as  soon  as  it  can  well  be  got 
into  the  ground.  The  soil  and  preparation  should  be  the  same 
as  for  winter  wheat.  Page  112.  Sow  barley  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  sufficiently  dry.  Page  141.  Sow  oats.  Page  138. 
Spring  rye  is  cultivated  in  the  same  manner  as  winter  rye. 
Page  130.  Field  peas  as  well  as  garden  peas  make  an  excel- 
lent crop.  Page  155.  Beans  are  also  highly  worth  the  judi- 
cious cultivator's  particular  attention.  Page  160.  Plant  some 
potatoes  of  an  early  sort  on  early  ground,  to  be  used  in  July 
and  August  as  food  for  your  hogs,  that  you  may  commence  fat- 
tening them  early  in  the  season.  Page  271.  Potatoes  in  small 
quantities  at  a  time  are  good  food  for  horses  and  oxen,  as  well 
as  most  other  animals,  especially  in  spring.  They  will  go  far- 
ther if  steamed  or  boiled,  but  when  given  raw  they  are  useful 
as  well  for  physic  as  for  food,  being  of  a  laxative  and  cooling 
quality.  It  is  now  about  the  time  to  sow  flax,  page  104,  and 
hemp.  Page  94.  Every  tool,  utensil,  &c.  which  will  be  want- 
ed for  the  labors  of  the  season,  should  now  (if  not  done  before) 
be  critically  inspected,  thoroughly  repaired,  and  such  new  ones 
of  the  best  quality  added  as  will  probably  be  needed.  We  know 
of  no  place  where  every  want  of  that  kind  can  be  better  sup- 
plied than  at  the  agricultural  warehouse,  No.  52,  North  Market 


AND   RURAL    ECONOMIST.  363 

street,  Boston,  owned  by  J.  R.  Newell ;  connected  with  which 
is  the  seed  store  of  G.  C.  Barrett,  where  may  be  procured  the 
best  of  seeds  both  for  garden  and  field  culture. 

MAT. 

Attend  to  you-r  pastures.  Do  not  turn  cattle  into  pasture 
ground  too  early  in  the  spring,  but  let  the  grass  have  a  chance 
to  start  a  little  before  it  is  bitten  close  to  the  soil.  If  your 
pastures  are  large,  it  will  be  good  economy  to  divide  them  as 
stated  page  300.  Cleanse  your  cellars,  as  well  as  the  rest  of 
your  premises,  from  all  putrescent  and  other  offensive  and  un- 
wholesome substances.  Plant  Indian  corn  as  soon  as  the 
leaves  of  the  white  oak  are  as  big  as  the  ears  of  a  mouse. 
Page  28.  Not  only  Indian  corn,  but  peas,  oats,  buckwheat, 
and  probably  most  other  seeds,  are  benefited  by  wetting  them 
in  water  just  before  sowing,  and  rolling  them  in  plaster.  Plant 
potatoes  for  your  principal  crop.  Page  271.  Sow  millet. 
Page  145.  Sow  lucerne  on  land  thoroughly  prepared,  and 
keep  it  free  from  weeds.  Page  19.  Declare  war  against  in- 
sects. Page  317.  The  artillery  for  the  engagement  may  be 
elder  juice,  or  decoction  of  elder,  especially  of  the  dwarf  kind, 
decoction  of  tobacco,  quicklime,  lime-water,  soot,  unleached 
ashes,  strong  lye,  tar  or  turpentine  water,  soap-suds,  &c.  Dis- 
solve about  two  pounds  of  potash  in  seven  quarts  of  water, 
and  apply  the  solution  to  your  fruit-trees  with  a  painter's 
lii.h,  taking  care  not  to  touch  the  leaves  or  buds.  A  lot  of 
land  well  stocked  with  clover  is  wanted  by  every  good  cultiva- 
tor for  pasturing  swine.    Page  167. 


Summer  made  Manure  demands  attention.  Most  farmers 
yard  their  cows  at  night  through  the  summer ;  their  manure 
should  be  collected  into  a  heap,  in  some  convenient  part  of  the 
barn-yard,  to  prevent  its  being  wasted  by  the  sun  and  rains.  A 
few  minutes'  attention  in  the  morning,  when  the  cows  are  turn- 
ed out  to  pasture,  would  collect  a  heap  of  several  loads  in  a 
season,  ready  for  your  grass  grounds  in  autumn.  Dress  your 
Indian  corn  and  potatoes,  thoroughly  extirpating  weeds,  and 
please  to  place  a  handful  of  ashes'or  plaster,  or  a  mixture  of 
both,  on  your  hills  of  corn  and  potatoes.  These  substances  are 
commonly  applied  before  the  first  or  second  hoeing.  But  ashes 
or  quickhme  (which  is  also  an  excellent  application  for  corn) 
will  have  a  better  effect  in  preventing  worms  if  laid  on  before 
the  corn  is  up.  Be  careful  to  save  all  your  soap-suds  after 
each  washing,  as  they  answer  an  excellent  purpose  when  ap- 
plied to  fruit-trees,  both  as  manure  and  as  an  antidote  to  in- 
sects. 'Plaster  or  live  ashes  sown  upon  your  pasture  grounds, 
will  not  only  repay  a  handsome  profit  by  increasing  the  value 
of  your  feed  by  bringing  in  the  finer  grasses,  such  as  white 
clover,  &c.,  but  will  greatly  improve  your  lands  for  a  potato 


364  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

fallow,  and  a  succeeding  wheat  crop,  whenever  you  may  wish 
to  take  advantage  of  a  routhie  of  crops.' 

JULY. 

Hay-making.  Page  288.  Make  as  much  of  your  hay  as  possi- 
ble in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  as  there  is  at  that  time  a 
greater  probability  of  your  being  favored  with  fair  weather. 
More  rain  falls  on  an  average  in  the  latter  part  of  summer,  or 
after  the  15th  of  July,  than  iDefore.  If  the  weather  is  so  un- 
favorable that  hay  cannot  be  thoroughly  cured,  the  application 
of  from  four  to  eight  quarts  of  salt  to  the  ton  is  recommended. 
In  this  way  it  can  be  saved  in  a  much  greener  state,  and  the 
benefit  derived  from  the  salt  is  many  times  its  value.  Ano- 
ther good  method  of  saving  green  or  wet  hay,  is  that  of  mixing 
layei-s  of  dry  straw  in  the^mow  or  stack.  Thus  the  strength 
of  the  grass  is  absorbed  by  the  straw,  and  the  cattle  will  eager- 
ly devour  the  mixture. 

Harvesting.  Page  293.  The  time  in  which  your  grain  crop 
should  be  cut,  is  when  the  straw  begins  to  shrink,  and  becomes 
white  about  half  an  inch  below  the  ear;  but  if  a  blight  or  rust 
has  struck  wheat  or  rye,  it  is  best  to  cut  it  immediately,  even 
if  the  grain  be  in  the  milky  state.  Barley,  however,  should 
stand  till  perfectly  ripe, 

AUGUST. 

Please  to  attend  in  season  to  preserving  your  sheep  from  the 
(Rstrus  ovis,  or  fly  which  causes  worms  in  their  heads.  Page 
239.  This  may  be  done  by  keeping  the  noses  of  the  animals 
constantly  smirched  with  tar  from  the  middle  of  August  till  the 
latter  part  of  September.  In  order  to  accomplish  this,  it  has 
been  recommended  to  mix  a  httle  fine  salt  with  tar,  and  place 
it  under  cover,  where  the  sheep  can  have  access  to  it,  and  they 
will  keep  their  noses  sufficiently  smirched  with  tar  to  prevent 
the  insect  from  attacking  them.  Destroy  thistles,  which  some 
say  may  be  done  by  letting  them  grow  till  in  full  bloom,  and 
then  cutting  them  with  a  scythe  about  an  inch  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  The  stem  being  hollow,  the  rains  and 
dews  descend  into  the  heart  of  the  plant,  and  it  soon  dies.  Se- 
lect the  ripest  and  most  plump  seeds  from  such  plants  as  are 
most  forward  and  thrifty,  and  you  will  improve  your  breeds 
of  vegetables  by  means  similar  to  those  which  have  been  suc- 
cessful in  improving  the  breeds  of  neat  cattle,  sheep,  &c.  As 
soon  as  your  harvesting  is  finished,  you  will  take  advantage 
of  this  hot  and  dry  weather  to  search  your  premises  for  mines 
of  manure,  such  as  peat,  page  209,  marl,  page  205,  mud,  &c., 
which  often  gives  unsuspected  value  to  swamps.  Now  is  also 
a  good  season  to  work  at  draining.  Page  296.  You  may 
drain  certain  marshes  on  your  premises,  which  will  affoid  you 
better  soil  than  you  now  cultivate,  cause  your  land  to  be  more 
healthy,  and  the  earth  taken  from  the  ditches  will  make  valua- 
ble deposits  in  your  cow-yard  and  pig-sty. 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  365 

SEPTEMBER. 

A  correctly  calculating  cultivator  will  make  even  his  hogs  la- 
bor for  a  livelihood.  This  may  be  done  by  throwing  into  their 
pens  potato-tops,  weeds,  brakes,  turf,  loam,  &c.,  which  these 
capital  workmen  will  manufacture  into  manure  of  the  first 
quality.  Page  190.  You  cannot  sow  winter  rye  too  early  in 
September.  If  it  be  sowed  early  its  roots  will  obtain  such  hold 
of  the  soil  before  winter,  that  they  will  not  be  liable  to  be 
thrown  out,  and  killed  by  frost.  Page  130.  It  may  be  sowed 
early  to  gieat  advantage  in  order  to  yield  green  food  for  cattle 
and  sheep,  particularly  the  latter,  in  the  spring.  Winter  wheat, 
likewise,  cannot  be  sowed  too  early  in  September.  Page  112. 
Attend  to  the  barn-yard,  and  see  that  it  has  a  proper  shape 
for  a  manure  manufactory,  as  well  as  other  accommodations, 
adapted  to  its  various  uses.  Page  77.  You  may  as  w^ell  have 
a  hole  in  your  pocket,  for  the  express  purpose  of  losing  your 
money,  as  a  drain  to  lead  away  the  wash  of  your  farm-yard. 
True,  it  may  spread  over  your  grass  ground,  and  be  a  source 
of  some  fertility  to  your  premises,  but  the  chance  is  that  most 
of  it  will  be  lost  in  a  highway,  or  neighboring  stream. 


Ploughing.  Page  281.  Stiff,  hard,  cloggy  land  intended  to 
be  tilled  should  be  ploughed  in  autumn.  Fall  ploughing  saves 
time  and  labor  in  the  spring,  when  cattle  are  weak,  and  the 
hurry  of  the  work  peculiar  to  that  season  presses  on  the  culti- 
vator. A  light  sandy  soil,  however,  should  not  be  disturbed  by 
fall  ploughing,  but  lie  to  settle  and  consolidate  through  the 
winter.  Select  your  corn  intended  for  planting  next  season 
from  the  field,  culling  fine,  fair,  sound  ears  from  such  stocks  as 
produce  two  or  more  ears,  taking  the  best  of  the  bunch.  Page 
32.  You  will  consider  well  which  is  the  best  method  of  har- 
vesting corn,  and  adopt  one  of  the  methods  mentioned  by  judge 
Buel.  Page  31.  If  the  husks  and  bottoms  of  your  corn,  when 
stowed  away  for  winter,  are  sprinkled  with  a  strong  solution 
of  salt  in  water,  (taking  care  not  to  use  such  a  quantity  of  the 
solution  as  to  cause  mould,)  and  when  dealt  out  are  cut  fine 
with  a  straw  cutter,  they  will  make  first-rate  fodder.  Do  not 
feed  hogs  with  hard  corn  without  steeping,  grinding  or  boiling 
it.  The  grain  will  go  much  the  farther  for  undergoing  some 
or  all  of  these  operations,  and  if  adue  degree  of  fermentation  is 
superadded,  so  much  the  better. 

NOVEMBER. 

In  many  situations  it  will  be  excellent  management  to  rake 
tip  ail  the  leaves  of  trees,  and  the  mould  which  has  been  pro- 
duced by  their  decay,  which  can  be  procured  at  a  reasonable 
expense,  and  cart  and  spread  them  in  the  barn-yard  as  a  layer, 
to  absorb  the  liquid  manure  from  your  cattle.  Likewise  it 
would  be  well  to  pl£ice  quantities  of  them  under  cover,  in  situa- 
31* 


366  THE    COMPLETE    FARMER 

tions  where  you  can  easily  obtain  them  in  winter  to  use  as 
litter  to  your  stables,  &c.  They  do  not  rot  easily,  but  they 
serve  the  purpose  of  little  sponges  to  imbibe  and  retain  liquid 
manure,  and  by  their  use  you^may  supply  your  crops  with 
much  food  for  plants  which  would  otherwise  be  lost.  Attend 
with  diligence  and  punctuality  to  the  wants  of  the  four-footed 
tenants  of  your  barn,  hog-sty,  &c.  Do  not  undertake  to  winter 
more  stock  than  you  have  abundant  means  of  providing  for. 
When  young  animals  are  pinched  for  food  at  an  early  period 
of  their  growth,  they  never  thrive  so  well  afterwards,  nor 
make  so  good  stock.  See  that  you  have  gocd  stalls,  stables, 
&c.,  page"  248;  cow-houses,  page  45;  a  proper  implement  for 
cutting'hay  and  straw,  page  51 ;  an  apparatus  for  cooking 
food  for  cattle  and  swine,  page  53.  You  may  also  carry  out 
and  spread  compost,  soot,  ashes,  &c.,  on  such  of  your  mowing 
grounds- as  stand  in  great  need  of  manure.  Though  some  say 
that  the  best  time  for  top-dressing  grass  land  is  immediately 
after  haying,  any  time  will  do  when  the  ground  is  free  from 
snow,  and  the  grass  not  so  high  as  to  be  injured  by  cattle's 
treading  on  it. 

DECEMBER. 

Woodland.  We  think  that  cultivators  may  derive  advantage 
from  attending  to  the  observations  by  the  Hon.  John  Welles, 
relative  to  wood-lots,  the  manner  of  cutting  them  over,  &c. 
Page  316.  We  advise  every  farmer,  and  his  help,  &c.  so  to 
treat  domestic  animals  that  they  may  be  tame  and  familiar. 
It  is  said  of  Bakewell,  a  famous  Enghsh  breeder  of  cattle,  that 
by  proper  management  he  caused  his  stock  to  be  very  gentle. 
His  bulls  would  sland  still  to  be  handled,  and  were  driven  from 
field  to  field  with  a  small  switch.  His  cattle  were  always  fat, 
which  he  said  was  owing  to  the  breed  as  well  as  keep.  Coltf" 
should  also  always  be  kept  tame  and  familiar,  and  you  may 
then  train  them  to  saddle  or  harness  without  danger  or  diffi- 
culty. Page  66.  The  farmer  should  obtain  his  year's  stock  of 
fuel  as  early  in  the  season  as  possible,  and  before  the  depth  of 
snow  in  the  wood-lands  renders  it  difficult  to  traverse  them  by 
a  team.  You  may,  when  the  ground  is  frozen,  cut  and  draw 
wood  from  swamps,  which  are  inaccessible  for  cattle  in  warm 
weather.  If  you  cut  wood  with  a  wish  that  the  stumps  should 
sprout,  let  it  be  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  and  before  the  buds 
swell  in  the  spring.  [See  Gen.  Newhall's  statement,  New 
England  Farmer  vol.  x.  p.  230.]  The  Rev.  Mr.  Elliot  wisely 
recommended,  when  bushy  ground,  full  of  strong  roots,  is  to 
be  ditched,  beginning  the  ditch  in  the  winter,  when  the  ground 
is  frozen  two  or  three  inches  deep.  The  surface  may  be  chop- 
ped into  pieces  by  a  broad  axe,  with  a  long  helve,  and  the  ditch 
completed  in  warm  weather.  The  farmer  may,  probably,  hit 
on  a  good  time  for  this  work  in  December,  when  there  happens 
to  be  no  snow,  and  when  it  will  not  interfere  with  other  farm- 


AND    RURAL    ECONOMIST.  367 

ing  business.  When  the  season  has  become  so  severe  that 
little  can  be  done  abroad,  much  may  be  done  relative  to  farm- 
ing operations,  and  other  good  works,  by  the  fireside,  in  con- 
trivirg  the  proper  course  of  crops  for  each  field,  settling  ac- 
counts, reading  useful  and  entertaining  books,  and  laying  the 
foundation,  by  mental  culture,  for  the  usefulness  and  respecta- 
bility of  those  who  compose  the  farmer^ s  family . 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Agricultural  Implements, 330 

Aphis,  or  Plant  Louse, , 324 

Apple-tree  Borer, 326 

Ashes  as  Manure, 212 

Barley, 141 

harvesting  of, 143, 295 

Barns, 47,  74 

Barn-yards, 77 

Beans, 160 

Beets,  field  cultivation  and  preservation  of, 255  to  2C4 

Birds,  the  folly  and  criminality  of  destroying,     306 

Bones,  use  of  for  manure, 213 

Buckwheat, 148 

Bushes,  how  to  extirpate, 311 

Butter,  how  made  and  preserved, 81 

how  made  in  winter, 89 

Calves, 57  to  63 

Canker-worm, 318 

Caterpillar, 322 

Cattle, 39 

ChafF-cutting, 50 

Chaff-cuttjr, 332 

Cheefe,  making, 91  to  94 

cleaning  of, 92 

Stilton,  how  made, 93 

to  prevent  skippers  in, 93 

to  prevent  having  a  bad  flavor, 93 

Cheese  Presses, 339 

Churn,  Gault's  Patent, 338 

Stone,    339 

Clover, 18 

on  making  into  hay, 291  to  294 

Colts, 67,  254 

Cotton, 277 

Cooking  Food  for  Cattle  and  Swine, 52  to  57 


370  INDEX. 

Page- 
Cow-house,    45 

Cows, 41 

manner  of  milking, 41 

winter  food  for, 44 

working  of, ,  .    44 

ho^  treated  when  about  to  calve, 45 

how  dried  of  their  milk, 45 

Cultivators  and  Scarifiers, 337 

Curculio, 323 

Curd  Mills 340 

Cut-worm, 325 

Dairy, 80 

Dirt  Scraper,  Davis'  Patent, 340 

Drains, .  296 

Eggs,  how  to  choose  at  market, 306 

Ewes  and  Lambs, 222 

Farmer's  Calendar, 360 

Fences, 214 

Fiorin  Grass, 20 

Flat-stalked  Meadow  Grass, 21 

Flax, 104 

Floating  Fescue  Grass, 21 

Food  fermented  for  Neat  Cattle, 48 

Fowls  and  Chickens,  to  fatten, 305 

Grain, 28 

Grain  Cradles, 344 

Grasses, 15 

proper  time  for  sowing,  &c., 25,26 

Gypsum, 199 

Harrow,  Chandler's  improved, 336 

Harricott's  Road, 337 

Harvesting, 293 

Oats, 295 

Hay-making, 288 

Hedges, 216 

Hemp, , 94 

Herd's  Grass,  or  Timothy, 20 

Hops, 150 

Horse, 240 

diseases  of, 245 

stable  for, 249 

Horse  Rake, 341 

Indian  Corn, 28  to  39 

hoeing  of  in  dry  weather, 34 

pla  iting  or  sowing  for  fodder, 36 

Insects, 317 

Irrigation, 312 


INDEX.  371 

Page. 

Lactometers, 340 

Lambs  and  Ewes, 222 

Lice  on  Apple-trees, 326 

Lime, 191 

Lucerne, 19,22 

Mangel- Wurtzel, * 255 

how  preserved, 262 

Manures, 174 

liquid, 182 

for  grass  ground, 186 

how  made  from  swine, 190 

bones  useful  for, 213 

articles  used  for, 212 

Marl, 205 

Meadow  Foxtail, 16 

Milk  for  butter,  &c 81 

Millet, 145 

Oats, 138 

harvesting  of, 295 

J.  Smith's  crop  of, 141 

Orchard  Grass, 16 

Oxen, 64 

Pasture, 299 

Pasture  Grasses, 23 

Pea, 155 

insects  in  and  diseases  of, 159 

Pickering's  Tree  Brushes, 339 

Plaster  of  Paris, 199 

Ploughing, 281 

mode  of  by  E.  Phinney,  Esq 287 

Ploughs, 335 

Potatoes 271 

Poultry, 303 

Pruning  Shears, 341 

Rice, 149 

Rough  Cock's  Foot,  or  Orchard  Grass,      16 

Ruta  Baga, 264 

Rye, 130 

Rye  Grass, 18 

Sainfoin, 20 

Scarifiers  and  Cultivators, 337 

^Scythes,  Scythe  Rifles,  Scythe  Snathes, 341 

Seed  Sowers, 355 

Sheep, 218 

shearing  of, 229 

disorders  of,  ...   , 234 

Slag- worm, 327 


372 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Smooth-Stalked  Meadow  Grass, 21 

Soils, '.   .   .    11 

Sows  devouring  their  Offspring, 171 

Stable  for  horses, 248 

Straw  Cutters 332 

Striped  Bug,  , 329 

Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass, 16 

Swine, 165 

use  of  coal  in  fattening, 170 

Tall  Fescue  Grass, 17 

Tall  Oat  Grass, 17 

Thrashing  Machines, 331 

Timothy,  or  Herd's  Grass, 20 

Tobacco, 879 

Turnips,  English, 267 

Swedish, 264 

Upright  Bent  Grass, 21 

Wheat, 112 

preparation  of  for  sowing, 117 

to  prevent  smut  in,    .    ,- 117,118 

use  of  lime  for, 120 

how  to  obtain  new  varieties  of, 123 

rist  or  mildew  in, 127 

the  kind  called  Black  Sea  Wheat,    .   .   ^ 128 

Willis'  Seed  Sower, 355 

Wire-worm, 328 

Wood-land, 316 


UMASS/AMHERST 


312066  0333  2779  3 


